Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Sebacic acid is a saturated, straight-chain naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid with 10 carbon atoms. Sebacic acid is a normal urinary acid. In patients with multiple acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD), also known as glutaric aciduria type II (GAII), a group of metabolic disorders due to deficiency of either electron transfer flavoprotein or electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase, biochemical data shows an increase in urine sebacic acid excretion. Sebacic acid is found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Sebacic acid is a white flake or powdered crystal slightly soluble in water that has been proposed as an alternative energy substrate in total parenteral nutrition. Sebacic Acid was named from the Latin sebaceus (tallow candle) or sebum (tallow) in reference to its use in the manufacture of candles. Sebacic acid and its derivatives such as azelaic acid have a variety of industrial uses as plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc. It is used in the synthesis of polyamide and alkyd resins. It is also used as an intermediate for aromatics, antiseptics and painting materials (PMID: 10556649, 1738216, 8442769, 12706375).
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhone-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration on December 2006.
6-Chloro-N-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine is a major soil metabolite of Atrazine <ht>DKW85-F</ht>. Environmental pollutant of soil and water.
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Systemic agricultural nematocide. Cholinesterase inhibitor Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
3-Indolebutyric acid is an indolic tryptophan metabolite occasionally found in human urine. (PMID:7130309). 3-Indolebutyric acid is a plasma and urinary tryptophan-related metabolite related to metabolic and skin diseases. (PMID:15206797). Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in the umbilical vein and artery are significantly higher than those in the maternal vein. (PMID:1506727). 3-Indolebutyric acid has been shown to accelerated glucose uptake in the rat diaphragm. (PMID:6025019). 3-Indolebutyric acid is also a microbial netabolite, urinary indole-3-butyrate is produced by Clostridia sp. (PMID:6630445).
Citropten is found in citrus. Citropten is found in lime and bergamot oils.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Lamivudine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor and zalcitabine analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3&#39; carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B (HBV).Lamivudine is a synthetic nucleoside analogue and is phosphorylated intracellularly to its active 5'-triphosphate metabolite, lamivudine triphosphate (L-TP). This nucleoside analogue is incorporated into viral DNA by HIV reverse transcriptase and HBV polymerase, resulting in DNA chain termination.
Ifosfamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positional isomer of cyclophosphamide which is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppressive agent. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhone-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration on December 2006.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
Benzylideneacetone is a flavouring ingredient. Benzylideneacetone is present in hydrolysed soy protei
Quinine is an alkaloid derived from the bark of the cinchona tree. It is used as an antimalarial drug, and is the active ingredient in extracts of the cinchona that have been used for that purpose since before 1633. Quinine is also a mild antipyretic and analgesic and has been used in common cold preparations for that purpose. It was used commonly and as a bitter and flavoring agent, and is still useful for the treatment of babesiosis. Quinine is also useful in some muscular disorders, especially nocturnal leg cramps and myotonia congenita, because of its direct effects on muscle membrane and sodium channels. The mechanisms of its antimalarial effects are not well understood. [PubChem].
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Fluorometholone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid employed, usually as eye drops, in the treatment of allergic and inflammatory conditions of the eye. It has also been used topically in the treatment of various skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p732)There is no generally accepted explanation for the mechanism of action of ocular corticosteroids. However, corticosteroids are thought to act by the induction of phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, collectively called lipocortins. It is postulated that these proteins control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes by inhibiting the release of their common precursor, arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is released from membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2. Their primary target is the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes.
Tolbutamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It is structurally similar to acetohexamide, chlorpropamide and tolazamide and belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Tolbutamide appears to be metabolized in the liver. Tolbutamide and its metabolites are excreted in urine (75-85%) and feces.
Nootkatone is a natural organic compound and is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit. It is a sesquiterpene and a ketone. Nootkatone was previously thought to be one of the main chemical components of the smell and flavour of grapefruits. In its solid form it is usually found as crystals. As a liquid, it is viscous and yellow. Nootkatone is typically extracted from grapefruit, but can also be manufactured with genetically modified organisms, or through the chemical or biochemical oxidation of valencene. It is also found in Alaska yellow cedar trees and vetiver grass.
Chlorpropamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating I cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic I cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Chlorpropamide is not recommended for the treatment of NIDDM as it increases blood pressure and the risk of retinopathy (UKPDS-33). Up to 80% of the single oral dose of chlorpropramide is metabolized, likely in the liver; 80-90% of the dose is excreted in urine as unchanged drug and metabolites. Renal and hepatic dysfunction may increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Budesonide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid used in the management of asthma, the treatment of various skin disorders, and allergic rhinitis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action of budesonide in the treatment of Crohn's disease is not fully understood. However, being a glucocorticosteroid, budesonide has a high local anti-inflammatory effect.
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
12-Hydroxystearic acid, also known as 12-HSA, (CAS# 36377-33-0), can be found in edible vegetable oils such as canola oil and castor oil
Pyrimethamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the folic acid antagonists that is used as an antimalarial or with a sulfonamide to treat toxoplasmosis. [PubChem]Pyrimethamine inhibits the dihydrofolate reductase of plasmodia and thereby blocks the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines, which are essential for DNA synthesis and cell multiplication. This leads to failure of nuclear division at the time of schizont formation in erythrocytes and liver.
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Nitrofurazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial wounds, burns, ulcers, and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of trypanosomiasis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Nitrofurazone inhibits several bacterial enzymes, especially those involved in the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of glucose and pyruvate. This activity is believed also to affect pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthetase, malate dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and pyruvate decarboxylase.
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
Gibberellic acid, also known as gibberellin A3, GA, or GA3, is a very potent hormone whose natural occurrence in plants controls their development. Since GA regulates growth, applications of very low concentrations can have a profound effect while too much will have the opposite effect. Gibberellic acid is a hormone found in plants. Gibberellic acid is a simple gibberellin promoting the growth and elongation of cells. It affects the decomposition of plants. It also helps plants grow if used in small amounts but eventually, plants grow a tolerance for it. Gibberellic acid stimulates the cells of germinating seeds to produce mRNA molecules that code for hydrolytic enzymes.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Masoprocol, also known as actinex or meso-ndga, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dibenzylbutane lignans. These are lignan compounds containing a 2,3-dibenzylbutane moiety. Symptoms of overdose or allergic reaction include bluish coloration of skin, dizziness, or feeling faint, wheezing or trouble in breathing. Masoprocol also inhibits prostaglandins but the significance of this action is not yet known. Masoprocol is a drug which is used for the treatment of actinic keratoses (precancerous skin growths that can become malignant if left untreated). It also serves as an antioxidant in fats and oils. Masoprocol is a potentially toxic compound. It is not known exactly how masoprocol works. Although the exact mechanism of action is not known, studies have shown that masoprocol is a potent 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor and has antiproliferative activity against keratinocytes in tissue culture, but the relationship between this activity and its effectiveness in actinic keratoses is unknown. A potent lipoxygenase inhibitor that interferes with arachidonic acid metabolism.
cis-Zearalenone is a metabolite of Fusarium species.
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
One of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p337)
Cyprodinil is a fungicide
Antiprotozoal, antihistomonad; mainly used for poultr
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
Propylparaben, also known as propyl chemosept or propyl parasept, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Propylparaben is a sweet, burnt, and hawthorn tasting compound. Propylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent.
Methoxsalen, also known as oxsoralen or 8-methoxypsoralen, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 8-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C8 position of the psoralen group. Methoxsalen is a drug which is used for the treatment of psoriasis and vitiligo. Methoxsalen is a bitter tasting compound. Methoxsalen is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as parsnips, parsley, and celery stalks and in a lower concentration in wild carrots, carrots, and fennels. Methoxsalen has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as figs, green vegetables, corianders, dills, and fruits. Methoxsalen is a potentially toxic compound.
Propylthiouracil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopeoia, 30th ed, p534)Propylthiouracil binds to thyroid peroxidase and thereby inhibits the conversion of iodide to iodine. Thyroid peroxidase normally converts iodide to iodine (via hydrogen peroxide as a cofactor) and also catalyzes the incorporation of the resulting iodide molecule onto both the 3 and/or 5 positions of the phenol rings of tyrosines found in thyroglobulin. Thyroglobulin is degraded to produce thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which are the main hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Therefore propylthiouracil effectively inhibits the production of new thyroid hormones.
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Masoprocol, also known as actinex or meso-ndga, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dibenzylbutane lignans. These are lignan compounds containing a 2,3-dibenzylbutane moiety. Symptoms of overdose or allergic reaction include bluish coloration of skin, dizziness, or feeling faint, wheezing or trouble in breathing. Masoprocol also inhibits prostaglandins but the significance of this action is not yet known. Masoprocol is a drug which is used for the treatment of actinic keratoses (precancerous skin growths that can become malignant if left untreated). It also serves as an antioxidant in fats and oils. Masoprocol is a potentially toxic compound. It is not known exactly how masoprocol works. Although the exact mechanism of action is not known, studies have shown that masoprocol is a potent 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor and has antiproliferative activity against keratinocytes in tissue culture, but the relationship between this activity and its effectiveness in actinic keratoses is unknown. A potent lipoxygenase inhibitor that interferes with arachidonic acid metabolism.
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Amoxapine, the <i>N</i>-demethylated derivative of the antipsychotic agent loxapine, is a dibenzoxazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amoxapine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amoxapine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. In addition, TCAs down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amoxapine may be used to treat neurotic and reactive depressive disorders, endogenous and psychotic depression, and mixed symptoms of depression and anxiety or agitation.
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool, also known as 1-Phenylurea or amino-N-Phenylamide, is classified as a member of the N-phenylureas. N-phenylureas are compounds containing a N-phenylurea moiety, which is structurally characterized by a phenyl group linked to one nitrogen atom of a urea group. 1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and acidic
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Tolcapone is a drug that inhibits the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT). It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa medication. It is a yellow, odorless, non-hygroscopic, crystalline compound. Tolcapone is associated with a risk of hepatotoxicity. [Wikipedia]
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
12-Hydroxystearic acid, also known as 12-HSA, (CAS# 36377-33-0), can be found in edible vegetable oils such as canola oil and castor oil
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
Tamoxifen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the selective estrogen receptor modulators with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the endometrium. [PubChem]Tamoxifen binds to estrogen receptors (ER), inducing a conformational change in the receptor. This results in a blockage or change in the expression of estrogen dependent genes. The prolonged binding of tamoxifen to the nuclear chromatin of these results in reduced DNA polymerase activity, impaired thymidine utilization, blockade of estradiol uptake, and decreased estrogen response. It is likely that tamoxifen interacts with other coactivators or corepressors in the tissue and binds with different estrogen receptors, ER-alpha or ER-beta, producing both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects.
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
Adipic acid is an important inudstrial dicarboxylic acid with about 2.5 billion kilograms produced per year. It is used mainly in the production of nylon. It occurs relatively rarely in nature. It has a tart taste and is also used as an additive and gelling agent in jello or gelatins. It is also used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart. Adipic acid has also been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. Adipic acid in the urine and in the blood is typically exogenous in origin and is a good biomarker of jello consumption. In fact, a condition known as adipic aciduria is actually an artifact of jello consumption (PMID: 1779643). However, certain disorders (such as diabetes and glutaric aciduria type I.) can lead to elevated levels of adipic acid snd other dicarboxcylic acids (such as suberic acid) in urine (PMID: 17520433; PMID: 6778884). Moreover, adipic acid is also found to be associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, and medium Chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Adipic acid is also microbial metabolite found in Escherichia.
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
Piperine, also known as fema 2909, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Piperine is a pepper tasting compound. Piperine is found in the highest concentration within pepper (Piper nigrum) and many other Piper species. Piperine has also been detected, but not quantified, in dills and herbs and spices.  Piperine is responsible for the hot taste of pepper. Piperine has been used in trials studying the treatment of Multiple Myeloma and Deglutition Disorders. It is used to impart pungent taste to brandy.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
Androstenedione is a delta-4 19-carbon steroid that is produced not only in the testis, but also in the ovary and the adrenal cortex. Depending on the tissue type, androstenedione can serve as a precursor to testosterone as well as estrone and estradiol. It is the common precursor of male and female sex hormones. Some androstenedione is also secreted into the plasma and may be converted in peripheral tissues to testosterone and estrogens. Androstenedione originates either from the conversion of dehydroepiandrosterone or from 17-hydroxyprogesterone. It is further converted to either testosterone or estrone. The production of adrenal androstenedione is governed by ACTH, while the production of gonadal androstenedione is under control by gonadotropins.
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Thiabendazole is active against a variety of nematodes and is the drug of choice for strongyloidiasis. It has CNS side effects and hepatototoxic potential. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p919)The precise mode of action of thiabendazole on the parasite is unknown, but it most likely inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme fumarate reductase. Thiabendazole is also used as a postharvest treatment for bananas, plantains and oranges. Registered in Canada for control of silver scurf in stored potatoes Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. Thiabendazole is also a chelating agent, which means that it is used medicinally to bind metals in cases of metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, mercury poisoning or antimony poisoning. Thiabendazole is vermicidal and/or vermifugal against <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> ("common roundworm"), <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> (threadworm), <i>Necator americanus</i>, <i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i> (hookworm), <i>Trichuris trichiura</i> (whipworm), <i>Ancylostoma braziliense</i> (dog and cat hookworm), <i>Toxocara canis</i>, <i>Toxocara cati</i> (ascarids), and <i>Enterobius vermicularis</i> (pinworm). Thiabendazole also suppresses egg and/or larval production and may inhibit the subsequent development of those eggs or larvae which are passed in the feces
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
Bird repellant in grain seed
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
6-Chloro-N-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine is a major soil metabolite of Atrazine <ht>DKW85-F</ht>. Environmental pollutant of soil and water.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
Buspirone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the benzodiazepines, but it has an efficacy comparable to diazepam. [PubChem]Buspirone binds to 5-HT type 1A serotonin receptors on presynaptic neurons in the dorsal raphe and on postsynaptic neurons in the hippocampus, thus inhibiting the firing rate of 5-HT-containing neurons in the dorsal raphe. Buspirone also binds at dopamine type 2 (DA2) receptors, blocking presynaptic dopamine receptors. Buspirone increases firing in the locus ceruleus, an area of brain where norepinephrine cell bodies are found in high concentration. The net result of buspirone actions is that serotonergic activity is suppressed while noradrenergic and dopaminergic cell firing is enhanced.
The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group. -- Pubchem; Imipramine (sold as Antideprin, Janimine, Tofranil) is an antidepressant medication, a tricyclic antidepressant of the dibenzazepine group, mainly used in the treatment of clinical depression and enuresis. -- Wikipedia.
Systemic agricultural nematocide. Cholinesterase inhibitor Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)pyridine is a flavouring ingredien
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Diclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt. [PubChem]The antiinflammatory effects of diclofenac are believed to be due to inhibition of both leukocyte migration and the enzyme cylooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), leading to the peripheral inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. As prostaglandins sensitize pain receptors, inhibition of their synthesis is responsible for the analgesic effects of diclofenac. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Systemic agricultural insecticide. Ethiofencarb is used for control of aphids on hard and soft fruits, vegetables and sugar bee
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea is a sweetening agent about 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is prohibited from human food use in U.S.A. and other countries
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Fumaric acid is a dicarboxylic acid. It is a precursor to L-malate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It is formed by the oxidation of succinic acid by succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is converted by the enzyme fumarase to malate. Fumaric acid has recently been identified as an oncometabolite or an endogenous, cancer causing metabolite. High levels of this organic acid can be found in tumors or biofluids surrounding tumors. Its oncogenic action appears to due to its ability to inhibit prolyl hydroxylase-containing enzymes. In many tumours, oxygen availability becomes limited (hypoxia) very quickly due to rapid cell proliferation and limited blood vessel growth. The major regulator of the response to hypoxia is the HIF transcription factor (HIF-alpha). Under normal oxygen levels, protein levels of HIF-alpha are very low due to constant degradation, mediated by a series of post-translational modification events catalyzed by the prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing enzymes PHD1, 2 and 3, (also known as EglN2, 1 and 3) that hydroxylate HIF-alpha and lead to its degradation. All three of the PHD enzymes are inhibited by fumarate. Fumaric acid is found to be associated with fumarase deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism. It is also a metabolite of Aspergillus.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
The prototypical uricosuric agent. It inhibits the renal excretion of organic anions and reduces tubular reabsorption of urate. Probenecid has also been used to treat patients with renal impairment, and, because it reduces the renal tubular excretion of other drugs, has been used as an adjunct to antibacterial therapy. [PubChem]
desloratadine is available off the shelf in Canada); Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
2-Naphthol is a colorless crystalline solid and an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on naphthalene. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. 2-Naphthol has several different uses including dyes, pigments, fats, oils, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, antiseptics, synthesis of fungicides, and antioxidants for rubber. Detection of 2-Naphthol in urine usually results from long-term persistent exposure to pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, but also due to exposure to naphthalene in older types of mothballs, fires that produce polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and tobacco smoke.
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate, also known as heptylparaben or nipaheptyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is used as a food additive ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. "). Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is a potentially toxic compound. No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC). These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. It is used as a food additive .
A nitroimidazole used to treat amebiasis; vaginitis; trichomonas infections; giardiasis; anaerobic bacteria; and treponemal infections. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed).
3-Indolebutyric acid is an indolic tryptophan metabolite occasionally found in human urine. (PMID:7130309). 3-Indolebutyric acid is a plasma and urinary tryptophan-related metabolite related to metabolic and skin diseases. (PMID:15206797). Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in the umbilical vein and artery are significantly higher than those in the maternal vein. (PMID:1506727). 3-Indolebutyric acid has been shown to accelerated glucose uptake in the rat diaphragm. (PMID:6025019). 3-Indolebutyric acid is also a microbial netabolite, urinary indole-3-butyrate is produced by Clostridia sp. (PMID:6630445).
Carbimazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an imidazole antithyroid agent. Carbimazole is metabolized to methimazole, which is responsible for the antithyroid activity. [PubChem]Carbimazole is an aitithyroid agent that decreases the uptake and concentration of inorganic iodine by thyroid, it also reduces the formation of di-iodotyrosine and thyroxine. Once converted to its active form of methimazole, it prevents the thyroid peroxidase enzyme from coupling and iodinating the tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, hence reducing the production of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is found in animal foods. 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is present in peach (Prunus persica) and heated beef. Comly. available flavour/aroma modifier; FDA approved flavouring. Shows antibacterial and antifugal propertie
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
A nitroimidazole used to treat amebiasis; vaginitis; trichomonas infections; giardiasis; anaerobic bacteria; and treponemal infections. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed).
2,6-Dimethoxybenzoic acid is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
2-Phenylethyl 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient.
3,3'-Thiobispropanoic acid is an antioxidant used in food packaging material
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Lamivudine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor and zalcitabine analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3&#39; carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B (HBV).Lamivudine is a synthetic nucleoside analogue and is phosphorylated intracellularly to its active 5'-triphosphate metabolite, lamivudine triphosphate (L-TP). This nucleoside analogue is incorporated into viral DNA by HIV reverse transcriptase and HBV polymerase, resulting in DNA chain termination.
A selective, irreversible inhibitor of Type B monoamine oxidase. It is used in newly diagnosed patients with Parkinson's disease. It may slow progression of the clinical disease and delay the requirement for levodopa therapy. It also may be given with levodopa upon onset of disability. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p385) The compound without isomeric designation is Deprenyl. [PubChem]
Antiprotozoal, antihistomonad; mainly used for poultr
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against mycobacterium leprae. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the sulfonamides which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with pyrimethamine in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
A biguanide hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of metformin. Although it is generally considered to be associated with an unacceptably high incidence of lactic acidosis, often fatal, it is still available in some countries. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p290)
Sebacic acid is a saturated, straight-chain naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid with 10 carbon atoms. Sebacic acid is a normal urinary acid. In patients with multiple acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD), also known as glutaric aciduria type II (GAII), a group of metabolic disorders due to deficiency of either electron transfer flavoprotein or electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase, biochemical data shows an increase in urine sebacic acid excretion. Sebacic acid is found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Sebacic acid is a white flake or powdered crystal slightly soluble in water that has been proposed as an alternative energy substrate in total parenteral nutrition. Sebacic Acid was named from the Latin sebaceus (tallow candle) or sebum (tallow) in reference to its use in the manufacture of candles. Sebacic acid and its derivatives such as azelaic acid have a variety of industrial uses as plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc. It is used in the synthesis of polyamide and alkyd resins. It is also used as an intermediate for aromatics, antiseptics and painting materials (PMID: 10556649, 1738216, 8442769, 12706375).
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
The prototypical uricosuric agent. It inhibits the renal excretion of organic anions and reduces tubular reabsorption of urate. Probenecid has also been used to treat patients with renal impairment, and, because it reduces the renal tubular excretion of other drugs, has been used as an adjunct to antibacterial therapy. [PubChem]
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is found in fruits. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is isolated from raspberries (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum species), European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus), blackberry, loganberry and redcurrants. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is an important flavour ingredient.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
Corticosterone, also known as 17-deoxycortisol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 21-hydroxysteroids. These are steroids carrying a hydroxyl group at the 21-position of the steroid backbone. Thus, corticosterone is considered to be a steroid lipid molecule. Corticosterone is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid,[3] involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses. Corticosterone is the precursor molecule to the mineralocorticoid aldosterone, one of the major homeostatic modulators of sodium and potassium levels in vivo.
Candoxatril is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the orally-active prodrug of candoxatrilat (UK-73967), the active enantiomer of candoxatrilat (UK-69578), a potent neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor used in the treatment of chronic heart failure.Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors such as Candoxatril have a dual mechanism of action. They inhibit two metalloprotease enzymes, neutral endopeptidase and ACE, resulting in an increased availability of natriuretic peptides that exhibit vasodilatory effects and, possibly, tissue protective effects.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Chlormezanone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-benzodiazepine that is used in the management of anxiety. It has been suggested for use in the treatment of muscle spasm. [PubChem]Chlormezanone binds to central benzodiazepine receptors which interact allosterically with GABA receptors. This potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, increasing the inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system and blocking the cortical and limbic arousal that occurs following stimulation of the reticular pathways.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Nitrofurazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial wounds, burns, ulcers, and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of trypanosomiasis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Nitrofurazone inhibits several bacterial enzymes, especially those involved in the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of glucose and pyruvate. This activity is believed also to affect pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthetase, malate dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and pyruvate decarboxylase.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Dodecanedioic acid is an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid containing 12 carbon atoms. More formally it is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid with both the first and last carbons of the aliphatic chain having carboxylic acids. Dodecanedioic acid is water soluble. It can be produced in yeast and fungi through the oxidation of dodecane via fungal peroxygenases (PMID: 27573441). High levels of dodecanedioic acid is an indicator of hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT IA) deficiency (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by hypoketotic dicarboxylic aciduria with high urinary levels of dodecanedioic acid. It is thought that carnitine palmitoyltransferase I may play a role in the uptake of long-chain dicarboxylic acids by mitochondria after their initial shortening by beta-oxidation in peroxisomes (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by acute encephalopathy with hypoglycemia and hepatomegaly.
Tolnaftate is a synthetic over-the-counter anti-fungal agent. It may come as a cream, powder, spray, or liquid aerosol, and is used to treat jock itch, athlete's foot and ringworm. It is sold under several brand names, most notably Tinactin (Schering-Plough Corporation) and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
1-naphthol (1N) is a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene that is an intermediate in Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450. It is generated by spontaneous reaction from (1R,2S)-Naphthalene epoxide then is it converted to 1,4-Dihydroxynaphthalene. Although 1-Naphthol is not persistent in the body, a single urine sample may adequately predict exposure over several months to chlorpyrifos, which is a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. In adult men, TCPY and 1N were associated with reduced testosterone levels (PMID:16357596, 15579421).
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)pyridine is a flavouring ingredien
cis-Zearalenone is a metabolite of Fusarium species.
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Pyrimethamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the folic acid antagonists that is used as an antimalarial or with a sulfonamide to treat toxoplasmosis. [PubChem]Pyrimethamine inhibits the dihydrofolate reductase of plasmodia and thereby blocks the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines, which are essential for DNA synthesis and cell multiplication. This leads to failure of nuclear division at the time of schizont formation in erythrocytes and liver.
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Poultry feed additive. Coccidiosta
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
(±)-Fenarimol is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicide.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
A histamine H1 receptor antagonist that is effective in the treatment of chronic urticaria, dermatitis, and histamine-mediated pruritus. Unlike its major metabolite cetirizine, it does cause drowsiness. It is also effective as an antiemetic, for relief of anxiety and tension, and as a sedative. [PubChem]
1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene is a member of the class of compounds known as M-xylenes. M-xylenes are aromatic compounds that contain a m-xylene moiety, which is a monocyclic benzene carrying exactly two methyl groups at the 1- and 3-positions. 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene can be found in corn, which makes 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Nootkatone is a natural organic compound and is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit. It is a sesquiterpene and a ketone. Nootkatone was previously thought to be one of the main chemical components of the smell and flavour of grapefruits. In its solid form it is usually found as crystals. As a liquid, it is viscous and yellow. Nootkatone is typically extracted from grapefruit, but can also be manufactured with genetically modified organisms, or through the chemical or biochemical oxidation of valencene. It is also found in Alaska yellow cedar trees and vetiver grass.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
3-Indolebutyric acid is an indolic tryptophan metabolite occasionally found in human urine. (PMID:7130309). 3-Indolebutyric acid is a plasma and urinary tryptophan-related metabolite related to metabolic and skin diseases. (PMID:15206797). Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in the umbilical vein and artery are significantly higher than those in the maternal vein. (PMID:1506727). 3-Indolebutyric acid has been shown to accelerated glucose uptake in the rat diaphragm. (PMID:6025019). 3-Indolebutyric acid is also a microbial netabolite, urinary indole-3-butyrate is produced by Clostridia sp. (PMID:6630445).
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Industrial biocide. 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one is present in can-end cement
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
6-Decanolide is a food flavour ingredient. Not reported in nature.
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
A diphenylbutylpiperidine that is effective as an antipsychotic agent and as an alternative to haloperidol for the suppression of vocal and motor tics in patients with Tourette syndrome. Although the precise mechanism of action is unknown, blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors has been postulated. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p403)
A diphenylbutylpiperidine that is effective as an antipsychotic agent and as an alternative to haloperidol for the suppression of vocal and motor tics in patients with Tourette syndrome. Although the precise mechanism of action is unknown, blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors has been postulated. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p403)
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-hydroxy-4-unsubstituted benzenoids. These are phenols that are unsubstituted at the 4-position. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group. 3-Ethylphenol is a musty tasting compound. 3-Ethylphenol has been detected, but not quantified, in cauliflowers. This could make 3-ethylphenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 3-Ethylphenol is a potentially toxic compound.
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhone-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration on December 2006.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol. These decreases occur primarily in the VLDL fraction and less frequently in the LDL fraction. Gemfibrozil increases HDL subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 as well as apolipoproteins A-I and A-II. Its mechanism of action has not been definitely established. [PubChem]
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Systemic agricultural and horticultural fungicid
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
desloratadine is available off the shelf in Canada); Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.
Salicylamide is the common name for the substance o-hydroxybenzamide, or amide of salicyl. Salicylamide is a non-prescription drug with analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its medicinal uses are similar to those of aspirin. Salicylamide is used in combination with both aspirin and caffeine in the over-the-counter pain remedies
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
Acetyl tributyl citrate is a flavouring ingredient and plasticiser used in packaging films for food.
Propylparaben, also known as propyl chemosept or propyl parasept, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Propylparaben is a sweet, burnt, and hawthorn tasting compound. Propylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent.
omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3, also known as Prochloraz-MN, is classified as a member of the Phenol ethers. Phenol ethers are aromatic compounds containing an ether group substituted with a benzene ring. omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic.  omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Citropten is found in citrus. Citropten is found in lime and bergamot oils.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
Bird repellant in grain seed
1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene is a member of the class of compounds known as M-xylenes. M-xylenes are aromatic compounds that contain a m-xylene moiety, which is a monocyclic benzene carrying exactly two methyl groups at the 1- and 3-positions. 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene can be found in corn, which makes 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Methyl beta-naphthyl ketone is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]")
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Colchicine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a major alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale L. and found also in other Colchicum species. Its primary therapeutic use is in the treatment of gout, but it has been used also in the therapy of familial Mediterranean fever (periodic disease). [PubChem]The precise mechanism of action has not been completely established. In patients with gout, colchicine apparently interrupts the cycle of monosodium urate crystal deposition in joint tissues and the resultant inflammatory response that initiates and sustains an acute attack. Colchicine decreases leukocyte chemotaxis and phagocytosis and inhibits the formation and release of a chemotactic glycoprotein that is produced during phagocytosis of urate crystals. Colchicine also inhibits urate crystal deposition, which is enhanced by a low pH in the tissues, probably by inhibiting oxidation of glucose and subsequent lactic acid production in leukocytes. Colchicine has no analgesic or antihyperuricemic activity. Colchicine inhibits microtubule assembly in various cells, including leukocytes, probably by binding to and interfering with polymerization of the microtubule subunit tubulin. Although some studies have found that this action probably does not contribute significantly to colchicine's antigout action, a recent in vitro study has shown that it may be at least partially involved.
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate, also known as heptylparaben or nipaheptyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is used as a food additive ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. "). Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is a potentially toxic compound. No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC). These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. It is used as a food additive .
Nootkatone is a natural organic compound and is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit. It is a sesquiterpene and a ketone. Nootkatone was previously thought to be one of the main chemical components of the smell and flavour of grapefruits. In its solid form it is usually found as crystals. As a liquid, it is viscous and yellow. Nootkatone is typically extracted from grapefruit, but can also be manufactured with genetically modified organisms, or through the chemical or biochemical oxidation of valencene. It is also found in Alaska yellow cedar trees and vetiver grass.
2-aminonaphthalene belongs to the family of Naphthalenes. These are compounds containing a naphthalene moiety, which consists of two fused benzene rings.
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Tamoxifen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the selective estrogen receptor modulators with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the endometrium. [PubChem]Tamoxifen binds to estrogen receptors (ER), inducing a conformational change in the receptor. This results in a blockage or change in the expression of estrogen dependent genes. The prolonged binding of tamoxifen to the nuclear chromatin of these results in reduced DNA polymerase activity, impaired thymidine utilization, blockade of estradiol uptake, and decreased estrogen response. It is likely that tamoxifen interacts with other coactivators or corepressors in the tissue and binds with different estrogen receptors, ER-alpha or ER-beta, producing both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects.
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
Phenazopyridine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic that has been used in urinary tract disorders. Its use is limited by problems with toxicity (primarily blood disorders) and potential carcinogenicity. [PubChem]Phenazopyridine's mechanism of action is not well known, and only basic information on its interaction with the body is available. It is known that the chemical has a direct topical analgesic effect on the mucosa lining of the urinary tract.
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Danazol is a synthetic steroid with anti-oestrogenic and anti progestogenic activity, and weak androgenic properties. Danazol suppresses oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the endometrium, leading to endometrial atrophy (thinning of the lining of the uterus) and reduced menstrual loss and to amenorrhoea in some women. Danazol significantly lowers the duration of menses when compared with NSAIDs and a progesterone releasing IUD; however, caused more adverse events than NSAIDs and progestogens. The use of Danazol may be limited by its side effect profile, its acceptability to women and the need for continuing treatment. Because danazol is structurally related to the anabolic steroid stanozolol, its use should be questioned. Derivatization methods and GC/MS data are used to implement danazol detection in routine screening and confirmation procedures in doping analysis. Danazol main metabolite ethisterone is excreted relatively fast in urine. (PMID: 17636649, 1640693, 16288903).
Theobromine, or 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, is the principle alkaloid in Theobroma cacao (the cacao bean) and other plants. A xanthine alkaloid that is used as a bronchodilator and as a vasodilator. It has a weaker diuretic activity than theophylline and is also a less powerful stimulant of smooth muscle. It has practically no stimulant effect on the central nervous system. It was formerly used as a diuretic and in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and caffeine. Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine. Theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the genus of the cacao tree, which is composed of the Greek roots theo ("God") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods". It is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate, and is one of the causes for chocolate's mood-elevating effects. The amount found in chocolate is small enough that chocolate can be safely consumed by humans in large quantities, but animals that metabolize theobromine more slowly, such as cats and dogs, can easily consume enough chocolate to cause chocolate poisoning. Theobromine is a stimulant frequently confused with caffeine. Theobromine has very different effects on the human body from caffeine; it is a mild, lasting stimulant with a mood improving effect, whereas caffeine has a strong, immediate effect and increases stress. In medicine, it is used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. There is a possible association between prostate cancer and theobromine. Theobromine is a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid access to the esophagus.
3,3'-Thiobispropanoic acid is an antioxidant used in food packaging material
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
A synthetic opioid that is used as the hydrochloride. It is an opioid analgesic that is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. It has actions and uses similar to those of morphine. It also has a depressant action on the cough center and may be given to control intractable cough associated with terminal lung cancer. Methadone is also used as part of the treatment of dependence on opioid drugs, although prolonged use of methadone itself may result in dependence. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1082-3)
Dodecanedioic acid is an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid containing 12 carbon atoms. More formally it is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid with both the first and last carbons of the aliphatic chain having carboxylic acids. Dodecanedioic acid is water soluble. It can be produced in yeast and fungi through the oxidation of dodecane via fungal peroxygenases (PMID: 27573441). High levels of dodecanedioic acid is an indicator of hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT IA) deficiency (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by hypoketotic dicarboxylic aciduria with high urinary levels of dodecanedioic acid. It is thought that carnitine palmitoyltransferase I may play a role in the uptake of long-chain dicarboxylic acids by mitochondria after their initial shortening by beta-oxidation in peroxisomes (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by acute encephalopathy with hypoglycemia and hepatomegaly.
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarin
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
2-Naphthalenol 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient for beverages, baked goods and candies.
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
Tolbutamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It is structurally similar to acetohexamide, chlorpropamide and tolazamide and belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Tolbutamide appears to be metabolized in the liver. Tolbutamide and its metabolites are excreted in urine (75-85%) and feces.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
2-Biphenylol is found in lemon. It is an antifungal agent and preservative. 2-Biphenylol is used for post-harvest control of storage disease in apples, citrus fruit, stone fruit, tomatoes, cucumber and peppers through the use of impregnated wrapping materials or by direct application in a wax. 2-Biphenylol is used in food seasonings. Inhibitory to a wider range of moulds than Biphenyl <ht>HMJ12-A</ht>. The practical way of treatment is to immerse citrus fruit in an alkaline aqueous solution of the parent compound or its Na salt
Chlorpropamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating I cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic I cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Chlorpropamide is not recommended for the treatment of NIDDM as it increases blood pressure and the risk of retinopathy (UKPDS-33). Up to 80% of the single oral dose of chlorpropramide is metabolized, likely in the liver; 80-90% of the dose is excreted in urine as unchanged drug and metabolites. Renal and hepatic dysfunction may increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol. These decreases occur primarily in the VLDL fraction and less frequently in the LDL fraction. Gemfibrozil increases HDL subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 as well as apolipoproteins A-I and A-II. Its mechanism of action has not been definitely established. [PubChem]
3,3'-Thiobispropanoic acid is an antioxidant used in food packaging material
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against mycobacterium leprae. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the sulfonamides which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with pyrimethamine in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
Tacrine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a centerally active cholinesterase inhibitor that has been used to counter the effects of muscle relaxants, as a respiratory stimulant, and in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other central nervous system disorders. [PubChem]The mechanism of tacrine is not fully known, but it is suggested that the drug is an anticholinesterase agent which reversibly binds with and inactivates cholinesterases. This inhibits the hydrolysis of acetylcholine released from functioning cholinergic neurons, thus leading to an accumulation of acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses. The result is a prolonged effect of acetylcholine.
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-hydroxy-4-unsubstituted benzenoids. These are phenols that are unsubstituted at the 4-position. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group. 3-Ethylphenol is a musty tasting compound. 3-Ethylphenol has been detected, but not quantified, in cauliflowers. This could make 3-ethylphenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 3-Ethylphenol is a potentially toxic compound.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Sulfanilamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a molecule containing the sulfonamide functional group attached to an aniline. [Wikipedia]Sulfanilamide is a competitive inhibitor of bacterial enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. This enzyme normally uses para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for synthesizing the necessary folic acid. The inhibited reaction is normally necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid. Without it, bacteria cannot replicate.
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against mycobacterium leprae. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the sulfonamides which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with pyrimethamine in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic often considered the prototypical member of this class. It reduces the reabsorption of electrolytes from the renal tubules. This results in increased excretion of water and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including edema, hypertension, diabetes insipidus, and hypoparathyroidism. -- Pubchem. Hydrochlorothiazide (Apo-Hydro, Aquazide H, Microzide, Oretic), sometimes abbreviated HCT, HCTZ, or HZT is a popular diuretic drug that acts by inhibiting the kidney's ability to retain water. This reduces the volume of the blood, decreasing peripheral vascular resistance. Chlorothiazide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. --Wikipedia.
A synthetic opioid that is used as the hydrochloride. It is an opioid analgesic that is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. It has actions and uses similar to those of morphine. It also has a depressant action on the cough center and may be given to control intractable cough associated with terminal lung cancer. Methadone is also used as part of the treatment of dependence on opioid drugs, although prolonged use of methadone itself may result in dependence. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1082-3)
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
2-Methyl-2-[(1-oxo-2-propenyl)amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid is a fda approved for use in polymer components of food-contact paper and board adhesive
Nicotinic acid, also known as niacin or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. The designation vitamin B3 also includes the amide form, nicotinamide or niacinamide. Severe lack of niacin causes the deficiency disease pellagra, whereas a mild deficiency slows down the metabolism decreasing cold tolerance. The recommended daily allowance of niacin is 2-12 mg a day for children, 14 mg a day for women, 16 mg a day for men, and 18 mg a day for pregnant or breast-feeding women. It is found in various animal and plant tissues and has pellagra-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties. The liver can synthesize niacin from the essential amino acid tryptophan, but the synthesis is extremely slow and requires vitamin B6; 60 mg of tryptophan are required to make one milligram of niacin. Bacteria in the gut may also perform the conversion but are inefficient.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
Dodecanedioic acid is an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid containing 12 carbon atoms. More formally it is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid with both the first and last carbons of the aliphatic chain having carboxylic acids. Dodecanedioic acid is water soluble. It can be produced in yeast and fungi through the oxidation of dodecane via fungal peroxygenases (PMID: 27573441). High levels of dodecanedioic acid is an indicator of hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT IA) deficiency (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by hypoketotic dicarboxylic aciduria with high urinary levels of dodecanedioic acid. It is thought that carnitine palmitoyltransferase I may play a role in the uptake of long-chain dicarboxylic acids by mitochondria after their initial shortening by beta-oxidation in peroxisomes (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by acute encephalopathy with hypoglycemia and hepatomegaly.
Pargyline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor with antihypertensive properties. [PubChem]MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability. There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase, MAO-A and MAO-B. MAO-A preferentially deaminates serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine. MAO-B preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines. Pargyline functions by inhibiting the metabolism of catecholamines and tyramine within presynaptic nerve terminals. Catecholamines cause general physiological changes that prepare the body for physical activity (fight-or-flight response). Some typical effects are increases in heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and a general reaction of the sympathetic nervous system.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Sulfanilamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a molecule containing the sulfonamide functional group attached to an aniline. [Wikipedia]Sulfanilamide is a competitive inhibitor of bacterial enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. This enzyme normally uses para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for synthesizing the necessary folic acid. The inhibited reaction is normally necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid. Without it, bacteria cannot replicate.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
(±)-Fenarimol is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicide.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)pyridine is a flavouring ingredien
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Bexarotene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent indicated by the FDA for Cutaneous T cell lymphoma. It has been used off-label for lung cancer, breast cancer, and Kaposi's sarcoma (Wikipedia). Bexarotene selectively binds with and activates retinoid X receptor subtypes. There are three subtypes in total: RXR<sub>&#945;</sub>, RXR<sub>&#946;</sub>, RXR<sub>&#947;</sub>. The exact mechanism of action of bexarotene in the treatment of CTCL is unknown but the drug has activity in all clinical stages of CTCL.
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
2,4-Dichlorophenol is a chlorinated organic chemical due to environmental exposure, that can be detected in breast milk. The free species of phenols and chlorinated organic appear to be most prevalent in milk. (PMID 16377264 ).
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Nalidixic Acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic 1,8-naphthyridine antimicrobial agent with a limited bacteriocidal spectrum. It is an inhibitor of the A subunit of bacterial DNA gyrase. [PubChem]Evidence exists for Nalidixic acid that its active metabolite, hydroxynalidixic acid, binds strongly, but reversibly, to DNA, interfering with synthesis of RNA and, consequently, with protein synthesis.
2-hydroxyflutamide is a metabolite of flutamide. Flutamide is an oral nonsteroidal antiandrogen drug primarily used to treat prostate cancer. It competes with testosterone and its powerful metabolite, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) for binding to androgen receptors in the prostate gland. By doing so, it prevents them from stimulating the prostate cancer cells to grow. Flutamide has been largely replaced by a newer member of this class, bicalutamide, due to a better side-effect profile. (Wikipedia)
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
Dodecanedioic acid is an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid containing 12 carbon atoms. More formally it is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid with both the first and last carbons of the aliphatic chain having carboxylic acids. Dodecanedioic acid is water soluble. It can be produced in yeast and fungi through the oxidation of dodecane via fungal peroxygenases (PMID: 27573441). High levels of dodecanedioic acid is an indicator of hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT IA) deficiency (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by hypoketotic dicarboxylic aciduria with high urinary levels of dodecanedioic acid. It is thought that carnitine palmitoyltransferase I may play a role in the uptake of long-chain dicarboxylic acids by mitochondria after their initial shortening by beta-oxidation in peroxisomes (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by acute encephalopathy with hypoglycemia and hepatomegaly.
A synthetic opioid that is used as the hydrochloride. It is an opioid analgesic that is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. It has actions and uses similar to those of morphine. It also has a depressant action on the cough center and may be given to control intractable cough associated with terminal lung cancer. Methadone is also used as part of the treatment of dependence on opioid drugs, although prolonged use of methadone itself may result in dependence. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1082-3)
Corticosterone, also known as 17-deoxycortisol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 21-hydroxysteroids. These are steroids carrying a hydroxyl group at the 21-position of the steroid backbone. Thus, corticosterone is considered to be a steroid lipid molecule. Corticosterone is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid,[3] involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses. Corticosterone is the precursor molecule to the mineralocorticoid aldosterone, one of the major homeostatic modulators of sodium and potassium levels in vivo.
Salicylamide is the common name for the substance o-hydroxybenzamide, or amide of salicyl. Salicylamide is a non-prescription drug with analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its medicinal uses are similar to those of aspirin. Salicylamide is used in combination with both aspirin and caffeine in the over-the-counter pain remedies
6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is found in animal foods. 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is present in peach (Prunus persica) and heated beef. Comly. available flavour/aroma modifier; FDA approved flavouring. Shows antibacterial and antifugal propertie
Chlormezanone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-benzodiazepine that is used in the management of anxiety. It has been suggested for use in the treatment of muscle spasm. [PubChem]Chlormezanone binds to central benzodiazepine receptors which interact allosterically with GABA receptors. This potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, increasing the inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system and blocking the cortical and limbic arousal that occurs following stimulation of the reticular pathways.
Propyl gallate is found in corn. Propyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially animal fats and vegetable oils. Synergistic with other antioxidants such as Butylated hydroxyanisole <ht>DNB28-K</ht> and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol <ht>HCH42-H</ht>. Especially effective with polyunsaturated fats. Indirect food additive arising from paper or board packaging, adhesives and food contact polymers Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase. Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.[citation needed] As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Pyrimethamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the folic acid antagonists that is used as an antimalarial or with a sulfonamide to treat toxoplasmosis. [PubChem]Pyrimethamine inhibits the dihydrofolate reductase of plasmodia and thereby blocks the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines, which are essential for DNA synthesis and cell multiplication. This leads to failure of nuclear division at the time of schizont formation in erythrocytes and liver.
1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool, also known as 1-Phenylurea or amino-N-Phenylamide, is classified as a member of the N-phenylureas. N-phenylureas are compounds containing a N-phenylurea moiety, which is structurally characterized by a phenyl group linked to one nitrogen atom of a urea group. 1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and acidic
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Propylthiouracil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopeoia, 30th ed, p534)Propylthiouracil binds to thyroid peroxidase and thereby inhibits the conversion of iodide to iodine. Thyroid peroxidase normally converts iodide to iodine (via hydrogen peroxide as a cofactor) and also catalyzes the incorporation of the resulting iodide molecule onto both the 3 and/or 5 positions of the phenol rings of tyrosines found in thyroglobulin. Thyroglobulin is degraded to produce thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which are the main hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Therefore propylthiouracil effectively inhibits the production of new thyroid hormones.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
2-Naphthalenol 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient for beverages, baked goods and candies.
Nootkatone is a natural organic compound and is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit. It is a sesquiterpene and a ketone. Nootkatone was previously thought to be one of the main chemical components of the smell and flavour of grapefruits. In its solid form it is usually found as crystals. As a liquid, it is viscous and yellow. Nootkatone is typically extracted from grapefruit, but can also be manufactured with genetically modified organisms, or through the chemical or biochemical oxidation of valencene. It is also found in Alaska yellow cedar trees and vetiver grass.
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Liothyronine is a T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone that is finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3. Liothyronine is mildly toxic by ingestion and is an experimental teratogen. When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of NOx, I(-), and Cl(-) (Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials).
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarin
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool, also known as 1-Phenylurea or amino-N-Phenylamide, is classified as a member of the N-phenylureas. N-phenylureas are compounds containing a N-phenylurea moiety, which is structurally characterized by a phenyl group linked to one nitrogen atom of a urea group. 1,2-Diacylglycerol-Bile-PC-pool is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and acidic
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
6-Chloro-N-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine is a major soil metabolite of Atrazine <ht>DKW85-F</ht>. Environmental pollutant of soil and water.
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Methyl beta-naphthyl ketone is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]")
Chlormezanone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-benzodiazepine that is used in the management of anxiety. It has been suggested for use in the treatment of muscle spasm. [PubChem]Chlormezanone binds to central benzodiazepine receptors which interact allosterically with GABA receptors. This potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, increasing the inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system and blocking the cortical and limbic arousal that occurs following stimulation of the reticular pathways.
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Gibberellic acid, also known as gibberellin A3, GA, or GA3, is a very potent hormone whose natural occurrence in plants controls their development. Since GA regulates growth, applications of very low concentrations can have a profound effect while too much will have the opposite effect. Gibberellic acid is a hormone found in plants. Gibberellic acid is a simple gibberellin promoting the growth and elongation of cells. It affects the decomposition of plants. It also helps plants grow if used in small amounts but eventually, plants grow a tolerance for it. Gibberellic acid stimulates the cells of germinating seeds to produce mRNA molecules that code for hydrolytic enzymes.
3,5-Dimethoxyphenol is a toxin metabolite that can be found in human consuming yew (Taxus baccata) leaves. Autopsy findings of fatal intoxication with yew are nonspecific. A presence of plant residues in the digestive tract can signalize yew intoxication. If yew decoction is consumed, plant residues are not found. In such a case, the intoxication can be signalized by the presence of 3,5-dimethoxyphenol in biological material (PMID: 20942244).
Danazol is a synthetic steroid with anti-oestrogenic and anti progestogenic activity, and weak androgenic properties. Danazol suppresses oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the endometrium, leading to endometrial atrophy (thinning of the lining of the uterus) and reduced menstrual loss and to amenorrhoea in some women. Danazol significantly lowers the duration of menses when compared with NSAIDs and a progesterone releasing IUD; however, caused more adverse events than NSAIDs and progestogens. The use of Danazol may be limited by its side effect profile, its acceptability to women and the need for continuing treatment. Because danazol is structurally related to the anabolic steroid stanozolol, its use should be questioned. Derivatization methods and GC/MS data are used to implement danazol detection in routine screening and confirmation procedures in doping analysis. Danazol main metabolite ethisterone is excreted relatively fast in urine. (PMID: 17636649, 1640693, 16288903).
Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide (NAM), is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. Niacinamide belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nicotinamides. These are heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing a pyridine ring substituted at position 3 by a carboxamide group. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Niacinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate can be converted into nicotinic acid mononucleotide and phosphate by the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase. In humans, niacinamide is involved in the metabolic disorder called the nad+ signalling pathway (cancer). Niacinamide is an odorless tasting compound. Outside of the human body, niacinamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common sages, cow milk, and cocoa beans and in a lower concentration in common pea. Niacinamide has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as yardlong beans, roselles, apples, oyster mushrooms, and swiss chards. Niacinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables. It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B3 and it is also available in higher doses. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake.
Undecanedioic acid has been found in parts of human aortas with advanced atherosclerotic lesions associated with intercellular matrix macromolecules and specifically with elastin, and may be the result of an increased hydrolysis of esters and (or) a decreased esterification. (PMID:131675). Undecanedioic acid has been found (among other unusual dicarboxylic acids) in the urine from patients under hopantenate therapy during episodes of Reye's-like syndrome. (PMID:2331533).
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Testosterone Propionate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an ester of testosterone with a propionate substitution at the 17-beta position. [PubChem]The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of two main mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors. Free testosterone (T) is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5&alpha;-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5&alpha;-reductase. DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than T, so that its androgenic potency is about 2.5 times that of T. The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal DNA. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
1,11-Undecanedicarboxylic acid, also known as 1,13-tridecanedioic acid or brassilic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. 1,11-Undecanedicarboxylic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Systemic agricultural fungicid
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarin
2,4-Dichlorophenol is a chlorinated organic chemical due to environmental exposure, that can be detected in breast milk. The free species of phenols and chlorinated organic appear to be most prevalent in milk. (PMID 16377264 ).
Propylparaben, also known as propyl chemosept or propyl parasept, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Propylparaben is a sweet, burnt, and hawthorn tasting compound. Propylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent.
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is found in fruits. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is isolated from raspberries (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum species), European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus), blackberry, loganberry and redcurrants. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is an important flavour ingredient.
12-Hydroxystearic acid, also known as 12-HSA, (CAS# 36377-33-0), can be found in edible vegetable oils such as canola oil and castor oil
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattl
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Tolnaftate is a synthetic over-the-counter anti-fungal agent. It may come as a cream, powder, spray, or liquid aerosol, and is used to treat jock itch, athlete's foot and ringworm. It is sold under several brand names, most notably Tinactin (Schering-Plough Corporation) and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.
Antiprotozoal, antihistomonad; mainly used for poultr
A synthetic opioid that is used as the hydrochloride. It is an opioid analgesic that is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. It has actions and uses similar to those of morphine. It also has a depressant action on the cough center and may be given to control intractable cough associated with terminal lung cancer. Methadone is also used as part of the treatment of dependence on opioid drugs, although prolonged use of methadone itself may result in dependence. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1082-3)
Phenazopyridine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic that has been used in urinary tract disorders. Its use is limited by problems with toxicity (primarily blood disorders) and potential carcinogenicity. [PubChem]Phenazopyridine's mechanism of action is not well known, and only basic information on its interaction with the body is available. It is known that the chemical has a direct topical analgesic effect on the mucosa lining of the urinary tract.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Clomipramine, the 3-chloro analog of imipramine, is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, clomipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, clomipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as clomipramine, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Clomipramine may be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and disorders with an obsessive-compulsive component (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, Tourette's disorder). Unlabeled indications include panic disorder, chronic pain (e.g. central pain, idiopathic pain disorder, tension headache, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, neuropathic pain), cataplexy and associated narcolepsy, autistic disorder, trichotillomania, onchophagia, stuttering, premature ejaculation, and premenstrual syndrome. Clomipramine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
(±)-Fenarimol is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicide.
Methoxsalen, also known as oxsoralen or 8-methoxypsoralen, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 8-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C8 position of the psoralen group. Methoxsalen is a drug which is used for the treatment of psoriasis and vitiligo. Methoxsalen is a bitter tasting compound. Methoxsalen is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as parsnips, parsley, and celery stalks and in a lower concentration in wild carrots, carrots, and fennels. Methoxsalen has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as figs, green vegetables, corianders, dills, and fruits. Methoxsalen is a potentially toxic compound.
Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide (NAM), is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. Niacinamide belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nicotinamides. These are heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing a pyridine ring substituted at position 3 by a carboxamide group. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Niacinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate can be converted into nicotinic acid mononucleotide and phosphate by the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase. In humans, niacinamide is involved in the metabolic disorder called the nad+ signalling pathway (cancer). Niacinamide is an odorless tasting compound. Outside of the human body, niacinamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common sages, cow milk, and cocoa beans and in a lower concentration in common pea. Niacinamide has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as yardlong beans, roselles, apples, oyster mushrooms, and swiss chards. Niacinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables. It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B3 and it is also available in higher doses. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake.
Corticosterone, also known as 17-deoxycortisol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 21-hydroxysteroids. These are steroids carrying a hydroxyl group at the 21-position of the steroid backbone. Thus, corticosterone is considered to be a steroid lipid molecule. Corticosterone is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. In many species, including amphibians, reptiles, rodents and birds, corticosterone is a main glucocorticoid,[3] involved in regulation of energy, immune reactions, and stress responses. Corticosterone is the precursor molecule to the mineralocorticoid aldosterone, one of the major homeostatic modulators of sodium and potassium levels in vivo.
6-Chloro-N-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine is a major soil metabolite of Atrazine <ht>DKW85-F</ht>. Environmental pollutant of soil and water.
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic often considered the prototypical member of this class. It reduces the reabsorption of electrolytes from the renal tubules. This results in increased excretion of water and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including edema, hypertension, diabetes insipidus, and hypoparathyroidism. -- Pubchem. Hydrochlorothiazide (Apo-Hydro, Aquazide H, Microzide, Oretic), sometimes abbreviated HCT, HCTZ, or HZT is a popular diuretic drug that acts by inhibiting the kidney's ability to retain water. This reduces the volume of the blood, decreasing peripheral vascular resistance. Chlorothiazide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. --Wikipedia.
A selective, irreversible inhibitor of Type B monoamine oxidase. It is used in newly diagnosed patients with Parkinson's disease. It may slow progression of the clinical disease and delay the requirement for levodopa therapy. It also may be given with levodopa upon onset of disability. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p385) The compound without isomeric designation is Deprenyl. [PubChem]
The prototypical uricosuric agent. It inhibits the renal excretion of organic anions and reduces tubular reabsorption of urate. Probenecid has also been used to treat patients with renal impairment, and, because it reduces the renal tubular excretion of other drugs, has been used as an adjunct to antibacterial therapy. [PubChem]
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
2-Acetyl-3,5,5,6,8,8-hexamethyl-5,6,7,8- tetrahydronaphthalene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as tetralins. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a tetralin moiety, which consists of a benzene fused to a cyclohexane.
Quinine is an alkaloid derived from the bark of the cinchona tree. It is used as an antimalarial drug, and is the active ingredient in extracts of the cinchona that have been used for that purpose since before 1633. Quinine is also a mild antipyretic and analgesic and has been used in common cold preparations for that purpose. It was used commonly and as a bitter and flavoring agent, and is still useful for the treatment of babesiosis. Quinine is also useful in some muscular disorders, especially nocturnal leg cramps and myotonia congenita, because of its direct effects on muscle membrane and sodium channels. The mechanisms of its antimalarial effects are not well understood. [PubChem].
A nitroimidazole used to treat amebiasis; vaginitis; trichomonas infections; giardiasis; anaerobic bacteria; and treponemal infections. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed).
Citropten is found in citrus. Citropten is found in lime and bergamot oils.
Selective pre- and post-emergence herbicide. Acifluorfen is used on soybeans and peanuts.
Nilutamide is an antineoplastic hormonal agent primarily used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nilutamide is a pure, nonsteroidal anti-androgen with affinity for androgen receptors (but not for progestogen, estrogen, or glucocorticoid receptors). Consequently, Nilutamide blocks the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin that stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Prostate cancer is mostly androgen-dependent and can be treated with surgical or chemical castration. To date, antiandrogen monotherapy has not consistently been shown to be equivalent to castration.
Theobromine, or 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, is the principle alkaloid in Theobroma cacao (the cacao bean) and other plants. A xanthine alkaloid that is used as a bronchodilator and as a vasodilator. It has a weaker diuretic activity than theophylline and is also a less powerful stimulant of smooth muscle. It has practically no stimulant effect on the central nervous system. It was formerly used as a diuretic and in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and caffeine. Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine. Theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the genus of the cacao tree, which is composed of the Greek roots theo ("God") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods". It is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate, and is one of the causes for chocolate's mood-elevating effects. The amount found in chocolate is small enough that chocolate can be safely consumed by humans in large quantities, but animals that metabolize theobromine more slowly, such as cats and dogs, can easily consume enough chocolate to cause chocolate poisoning. Theobromine is a stimulant frequently confused with caffeine. Theobromine has very different effects on the human body from caffeine; it is a mild, lasting stimulant with a mood improving effect, whereas caffeine has a strong, immediate effect and increases stress. In medicine, it is used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. There is a possible association between prostate cancer and theobromine. Theobromine is a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid access to the esophagus.
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
Diclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt. [PubChem]The antiinflammatory effects of diclofenac are believed to be due to inhibition of both leukocyte migration and the enzyme cylooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), leading to the peripheral inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. As prostaglandins sensitize pain receptors, inhibition of their synthesis is responsible for the analgesic effects of diclofenac. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Systemic agricultural nematocide. Cholinesterase inhibitor Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide
2-Phenylethyl 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient.
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) widely marketed under various trademarks including Act-3, Advil, Brufen, Motrin, Nuprin, and Nurofen. It is used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea, and fever; Ibuprofen is an NSAID which is believed to work through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. There are at least 2 variations of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), ibuprofen inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2. It appears that its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity are achieved principally through COX-2 inhibition; whereas COX-1 inhibition is responsible for its unwanted effects on platelet aggregation and the GI mucosa. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen inhibits platelet aggregation, but is not used therapeutically for this action since it is a minor and reversible effect. -- Wikipedia.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
A pyrazine compound inhibiting sodium reabsorption through sodium channels in renal epithelial cells. This inhibition creates a negative potential in the luminal membranes of principal cells, located in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Negative potential reduces secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions. Amiloride is used in conjunction with diuretics to spare potassium loss. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p705)
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
Ouabain is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cardioactive glycoside consisting of rhamnose and ouabagenin, obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus and other plants of the Apocynaceae; used like digitalis. It is commonly used in cell biological studies as an inhibitor of the NA(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase. [PubChem]Ouabain inhibits the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, resulting in an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations. Increased intracellular concentrations of calcium may promote activation of contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin). Ouabain also acts on the electrical activity of the heart, increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization, shortening the action potential duration, and decreasing the maximal diastolic potential.
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
2-aminonaphthalene belongs to the family of Naphthalenes. These are compounds containing a naphthalene moiety, which consists of two fused benzene rings.
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
A chlorinated bisphenol antiseptic with a bacteriostatic action against Gram-positive organisms, but much less effective against Gram-negative organisms. It is mainly used in soaps and creams and is an ingredient of various preparations used for skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p797)
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
2,4-Dichlorophenol is a chlorinated organic chemical due to environmental exposure, that can be detected in breast milk. The free species of phenols and chlorinated organic appear to be most prevalent in milk. (PMID 16377264 ).
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against mycobacterium leprae. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the sulfonamides which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with pyrimethamine in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Chlorpropamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating I cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic I cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Chlorpropamide is not recommended for the treatment of NIDDM as it increases blood pressure and the risk of retinopathy (UKPDS-33). Up to 80% of the single oral dose of chlorpropramide is metabolized, likely in the liver; 80-90% of the dose is excreted in urine as unchanged drug and metabolites. Renal and hepatic dysfunction may increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
Undecanedioic acid has been found in parts of human aortas with advanced atherosclerotic lesions associated with intercellular matrix macromolecules and specifically with elastin, and may be the result of an increased hydrolysis of esters and (or) a decreased esterification. (PMID:131675). Undecanedioic acid has been found (among other unusual dicarboxylic acids) in the urine from patients under hopantenate therapy during episodes of Reye's-like syndrome. (PMID:2331533).
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
Nootkatone is a natural organic compound and is the most important and expensive aromatic of grapefruit. It is a sesquiterpene and a ketone. Nootkatone was previously thought to be one of the main chemical components of the smell and flavour of grapefruits. In its solid form it is usually found as crystals. As a liquid, it is viscous and yellow. Nootkatone is typically extracted from grapefruit, but can also be manufactured with genetically modified organisms, or through the chemical or biochemical oxidation of valencene. It is also found in Alaska yellow cedar trees and vetiver grass.
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
Propylthiouracil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopeoia, 30th ed, p534)Propylthiouracil binds to thyroid peroxidase and thereby inhibits the conversion of iodide to iodine. Thyroid peroxidase normally converts iodide to iodine (via hydrogen peroxide as a cofactor) and also catalyzes the incorporation of the resulting iodide molecule onto both the 3 and/or 5 positions of the phenol rings of tyrosines found in thyroglobulin. Thyroglobulin is degraded to produce thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which are the main hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Therefore propylthiouracil effectively inhibits the production of new thyroid hormones.
Tacrine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a centerally active cholinesterase inhibitor that has been used to counter the effects of muscle relaxants, as a respiratory stimulant, and in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other central nervous system disorders. [PubChem]The mechanism of tacrine is not fully known, but it is suggested that the drug is an anticholinesterase agent which reversibly binds with and inactivates cholinesterases. This inhibits the hydrolysis of acetylcholine released from functioning cholinergic neurons, thus leading to an accumulation of acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses. The result is a prolonged effect of acetylcholine.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
Undecanedioic acid has been found in parts of human aortas with advanced atherosclerotic lesions associated with intercellular matrix macromolecules and specifically with elastin, and may be the result of an increased hydrolysis of esters and (or) a decreased esterification. (PMID:131675). Undecanedioic acid has been found (among other unusual dicarboxylic acids) in the urine from patients under hopantenate therapy during episodes of Reye's-like syndrome. (PMID:2331533).
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Sulfanilamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a molecule containing the sulfonamide functional group attached to an aniline. [Wikipedia]Sulfanilamide is a competitive inhibitor of bacterial enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. This enzyme normally uses para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for synthesizing the necessary folic acid. The inhibited reaction is normally necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid. Without it, bacteria cannot replicate.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Ifosfamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positional isomer of cyclophosphamide which is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppressive agent. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
2-Methyl-2-[(1-oxo-2-propenyl)amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid is a fda approved for use in polymer components of food-contact paper and board adhesive
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Thiabendazole is active against a variety of nematodes and is the drug of choice for strongyloidiasis. It has CNS side effects and hepatototoxic potential. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p919)The precise mode of action of thiabendazole on the parasite is unknown, but it most likely inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme fumarate reductase. Thiabendazole is also used as a postharvest treatment for bananas, plantains and oranges. Registered in Canada for control of silver scurf in stored potatoes Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. Thiabendazole is also a chelating agent, which means that it is used medicinally to bind metals in cases of metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, mercury poisoning or antimony poisoning. Thiabendazole is vermicidal and/or vermifugal against <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> ("common roundworm"), <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> (threadworm), <i>Necator americanus</i>, <i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i> (hookworm), <i>Trichuris trichiura</i> (whipworm), <i>Ancylostoma braziliense</i> (dog and cat hookworm), <i>Toxocara canis</i>, <i>Toxocara cati</i> (ascarids), and <i>Enterobius vermicularis</i> (pinworm). Thiabendazole also suppresses egg and/or larval production and may inhibit the subsequent development of those eggs or larvae which are passed in the feces
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Dodecanedioic acid is an aliphatic dicarboxylic acid containing 12 carbon atoms. More formally it is an alpha,omega-dicarboxylic acid with both the first and last carbons of the aliphatic chain having carboxylic acids. Dodecanedioic acid is water soluble. It can be produced in yeast and fungi through the oxidation of dodecane via fungal peroxygenases (PMID: 27573441). High levels of dodecanedioic acid is an indicator of hepatic carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT IA) deficiency (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by hypoketotic dicarboxylic aciduria with high urinary levels of dodecanedioic acid. It is thought that carnitine palmitoyltransferase I may play a role in the uptake of long-chain dicarboxylic acids by mitochondria after their initial shortening by beta-oxidation in peroxisomes (PMID: 16146704). CPT IA deficiency is characterized by acute encephalopathy with hypoglycemia and hepatomegaly.
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Amoxapine, the <i>N</i>-demethylated derivative of the antipsychotic agent loxapine, is a dibenzoxazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amoxapine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amoxapine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. In addition, TCAs down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amoxapine may be used to treat neurotic and reactive depressive disorders, endogenous and psychotic depression, and mixed symptoms of depression and anxiety or agitation.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Cyprodinil is a fungicide
Fluorometholone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid employed, usually as eye drops, in the treatment of allergic and inflammatory conditions of the eye. It has also been used topically in the treatment of various skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p732)There is no generally accepted explanation for the mechanism of action of ocular corticosteroids. However, corticosteroids are thought to act by the induction of phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, collectively called lipocortins. It is postulated that these proteins control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes by inhibiting the release of their common precursor, arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is released from membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2. Their primary target is the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes.
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Clomipramine, the 3-chloro analog of imipramine, is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, clomipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, clomipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as clomipramine, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Clomipramine may be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and disorders with an obsessive-compulsive component (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, Tourette's disorder). Unlabeled indications include panic disorder, chronic pain (e.g. central pain, idiopathic pain disorder, tension headache, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, neuropathic pain), cataplexy and associated narcolepsy, autistic disorder, trichotillomania, onchophagia, stuttering, premature ejaculation, and premenstrual syndrome. Clomipramine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
An anticonvulsant used to control grand mal and psychomotor or focal seizures. Its mode of action is not fully understood, but some of its actions resemble those of phenytoin; although there is little chemical resemblance between the two compounds, their three-dimensional structure is similar. [PubChem]
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
Systemic agricultural fungicid
Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol, also known as 2,4-DTBP, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanes. These are organic compounds containing a phenylpropane moiety. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol is a synthetic phenolic antioxidant (SPA). SPAs are a family of chemicals used widely in foods, polymers, and cosmetics as radical trapping agents to slow down degradation due to oxidation. Given their widespread use, human exposure is unavoidable and there is public concern regarding environmental contamination by these chemicals. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol was detected at extremely high concentrations in human urine (PMID: 31265952).
Gibberellic acid, also known as gibberellin A3, GA, or GA3, is a very potent hormone whose natural occurrence in plants controls their development. Since GA regulates growth, applications of very low concentrations can have a profound effect while too much will have the opposite effect. Gibberellic acid is a hormone found in plants. Gibberellic acid is a simple gibberellin promoting the growth and elongation of cells. It affects the decomposition of plants. It also helps plants grow if used in small amounts but eventually, plants grow a tolerance for it. Gibberellic acid stimulates the cells of germinating seeds to produce mRNA molecules that code for hydrolytic enzymes.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Flutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antiandrogen with about the same potency as cyproterone in rodent and canine species.Flutamide is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen that blocks the action of both endogenous and exogenous testosterone by binding to the androgen receptor. In addition Flutamide is a potent inhibitor of testosterone-stimulated prostatic DNA synthesis. Moreover, it is capable of inhibiting prostatic nuclear uptake of androgen.
4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is manufactured via a catalytic reaction of phenol with diisobutylene. It is a member of the class of compounds known as phenylpropanes. Phenylpropanes are organic compounds that contain a phenylpropane moiety. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol can be found primarily in feces and urine. Within the cell, 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is biodegradable, and in the surface layer of natural waters, 30% of OP can be degraded within one day. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is acutely very toxic to aquatic organisms and may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. It is not acutely toxic to human health, but it is slightly irritating to the skin and highly irritating to the eyes. It is not genotoxic, but it may cause depigmentation of the skin. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is used as a food additive (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States).
Nilutamide is an antineoplastic hormonal agent primarily used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nilutamide is a pure, nonsteroidal anti-androgen with affinity for androgen receptors (but not for progestogen, estrogen, or glucocorticoid receptors). Consequently, Nilutamide blocks the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin that stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Prostate cancer is mostly androgen-dependent and can be treated with surgical or chemical castration. To date, antiandrogen monotherapy has not consistently been shown to be equivalent to castration.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against mycobacterium leprae. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the sulfonamides which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with pyrimethamine in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Tolbutamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It is structurally similar to acetohexamide, chlorpropamide and tolazamide and belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Tolbutamide appears to be metabolized in the liver. Tolbutamide and its metabolites are excreted in urine (75-85%) and feces.
Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Candoxatril is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the orally-active prodrug of candoxatrilat (UK-73967), the active enantiomer of candoxatrilat (UK-69578), a potent neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor used in the treatment of chronic heart failure.Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors such as Candoxatril have a dual mechanism of action. They inhibit two metalloprotease enzymes, neutral endopeptidase and ACE, resulting in an increased availability of natriuretic peptides that exhibit vasodilatory effects and, possibly, tissue protective effects.
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea is a sweetening agent about 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is prohibited from human food use in U.S.A. and other countries
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
Candoxatril is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the orally-active prodrug of candoxatrilat (UK-73967), the active enantiomer of candoxatrilat (UK-69578), a potent neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor used in the treatment of chronic heart failure.Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors such as Candoxatril have a dual mechanism of action. They inhibit two metalloprotease enzymes, neutral endopeptidase and ACE, resulting in an increased availability of natriuretic peptides that exhibit vasodilatory effects and, possibly, tissue protective effects.
Tolbutamide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It is structurally similar to acetohexamide, chlorpropamide and tolazamide and belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Tolbutamide appears to be metabolized in the liver. Tolbutamide and its metabolites are excreted in urine (75-85%) and feces.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol. These decreases occur primarily in the VLDL fraction and less frequently in the LDL fraction. Gemfibrozil increases HDL subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 as well as apolipoproteins A-I and A-II. Its mechanism of action has not been definitely established. [PubChem]
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
Nitrofurazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial wounds, burns, ulcers, and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of trypanosomiasis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Nitrofurazone inhibits several bacterial enzymes, especially those involved in the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of glucose and pyruvate. This activity is believed also to affect pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthetase, malate dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and pyruvate decarboxylase.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Theobromine, or 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, is the principle alkaloid in Theobroma cacao (the cacao bean) and other plants. A xanthine alkaloid that is used as a bronchodilator and as a vasodilator. It has a weaker diuretic activity than theophylline and is also a less powerful stimulant of smooth muscle. It has practically no stimulant effect on the central nervous system. It was formerly used as a diuretic and in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and caffeine. Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine. Theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the genus of the cacao tree, which is composed of the Greek roots theo ("God") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods". It is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate, and is one of the causes for chocolate's mood-elevating effects. The amount found in chocolate is small enough that chocolate can be safely consumed by humans in large quantities, but animals that metabolize theobromine more slowly, such as cats and dogs, can easily consume enough chocolate to cause chocolate poisoning. Theobromine is a stimulant frequently confused with caffeine. Theobromine has very different effects on the human body from caffeine; it is a mild, lasting stimulant with a mood improving effect, whereas caffeine has a strong, immediate effect and increases stress. In medicine, it is used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. There is a possible association between prostate cancer and theobromine. Theobromine is a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid access to the esophagus.
Liothyronine is a T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone that is finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3. Liothyronine is mildly toxic by ingestion and is an experimental teratogen. When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of NOx, I(-), and Cl(-) (Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials).
Propyl gallate is found in corn. Propyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially animal fats and vegetable oils. Synergistic with other antioxidants such as Butylated hydroxyanisole <ht>DNB28-K</ht> and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol <ht>HCH42-H</ht>. Especially effective with polyunsaturated fats. Indirect food additive arising from paper or board packaging, adhesives and food contact polymers Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase. Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.[citation needed] As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene is a member of the class of compounds known as M-xylenes. M-xylenes are aromatic compounds that contain a m-xylene moiety, which is a monocyclic benzene carrying exactly two methyl groups at the 1- and 3-positions. 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene can be found in corn, which makes 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Bird repellant in grain seed
Selective pre- and post-emergence herbicide. Acifluorfen is used on soybeans and peanuts.
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Lamivudine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor and zalcitabine analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3&#39; carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B (HBV).Lamivudine is a synthetic nucleoside analogue and is phosphorylated intracellularly to its active 5'-triphosphate metabolite, lamivudine triphosphate (L-TP). This nucleoside analogue is incorporated into viral DNA by HIV reverse transcriptase and HBV polymerase, resulting in DNA chain termination.
6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is found in animal foods. 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is present in peach (Prunus persica) and heated beef. Comly. available flavour/aroma modifier; FDA approved flavouring. Shows antibacterial and antifugal propertie
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
2,5-dichlorophenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
desloratadine is available off the shelf in Canada); Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.
2-Naphthalenol 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient for beverages, baked goods and candies.
(±)-Fenarimol is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicide.
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
cis-Zearalenone is a metabolite of Fusarium species.
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Acesulfame is a non-nutritive sweetener Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K (K being the symbol for potassium), and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code) E950. It was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG (now Nutrinova). In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the potassium salt of 6-methyl-1,2,3- oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder with molecular formula C4H4KNO4S and a molecular weight of 201.24.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate, also known as heptylparaben or nipaheptyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is used as a food additive ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. "). Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is a potentially toxic compound. No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC). These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. It is used as a food additive .
Oxipurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. Oxipurinol is potentially used for treatment of congestive heart failure. PMID: 15139781.
2,6-Dimethoxybenzoic acid is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Amiodarone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antianginal and antiarrhythmic drug. It increases the duration of ventricular and atrial muscle action by inhibiting Na,K-activated myocardial adenosine triphosphatase. There is a resulting decrease in heart rate and in vascular resistance. [PubChem]The antiarrhythmic effect of amiodarone may be due to at least two major actions. It prolongs the myocardial cell-action potential (phase 3) duration and refractory period and acts as a noncompetitive a- and b-adrenergic inhibitor.
6-Decanolide is a food flavour ingredient. Not reported in nature.
Methyl beta-naphthyl ketone is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]")
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3, also known as Prochloraz-MN, is classified as a member of the Phenol ethers. Phenol ethers are aromatic compounds containing an ether group substituted with a benzene ring. omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic.  omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound
Acesulfame is a non-nutritive sweetener Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K (K being the symbol for potassium), and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code) E950. It was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG (now Nutrinova). In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the potassium salt of 6-methyl-1,2,3- oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder with molecular formula C4H4KNO4S and a molecular weight of 201.24.
2-Naphthol is a colorless crystalline solid and an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on naphthalene. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. 2-Naphthol has several different uses including dyes, pigments, fats, oils, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, antiseptics, synthesis of fungicides, and antioxidants for rubber. Detection of 2-Naphthol in urine usually results from long-term persistent exposure to pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, but also due to exposure to naphthalene in older types of mothballs, fires that produce polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and tobacco smoke.
Pargyline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor with antihypertensive properties. [PubChem]MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability. There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase, MAO-A and MAO-B. MAO-A preferentially deaminates serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine. MAO-B preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines. Pargyline functions by inhibiting the metabolism of catecholamines and tyramine within presynaptic nerve terminals. Catecholamines cause general physiological changes that prepare the body for physical activity (fight-or-flight response). Some typical effects are increases in heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and a general reaction of the sympathetic nervous system.
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Bexarotene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent indicated by the FDA for Cutaneous T cell lymphoma. It has been used off-label for lung cancer, breast cancer, and Kaposi's sarcoma (Wikipedia). Bexarotene selectively binds with and activates retinoid X receptor subtypes. There are three subtypes in total: RXR<sub>&#945;</sub>, RXR<sub>&#946;</sub>, RXR<sub>&#947;</sub>. The exact mechanism of action of bexarotene in the treatment of CTCL is unknown but the drug has activity in all clinical stages of CTCL.
Antiprotozoal, antihistomonad; mainly used for poultr
Nicotinic acid, also known as niacin or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. The designation vitamin B3 also includes the amide form, nicotinamide or niacinamide. Severe lack of niacin causes the deficiency disease pellagra, whereas a mild deficiency slows down the metabolism decreasing cold tolerance. The recommended daily allowance of niacin is 2-12 mg a day for children, 14 mg a day for women, 16 mg a day for men, and 18 mg a day for pregnant or breast-feeding women. It is found in various animal and plant tissues and has pellagra-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties. The liver can synthesize niacin from the essential amino acid tryptophan, but the synthesis is extremely slow and requires vitamin B6; 60 mg of tryptophan are required to make one milligram of niacin. Bacteria in the gut may also perform the conversion but are inefficient.
Physiological coolant used in foods, beverages, chewing gum, toiletries, topical pharmaceutical formulations and oral hygiene products.
A histamine H1 receptor antagonist that is effective in the treatment of chronic urticaria, dermatitis, and histamine-mediated pruritus. Unlike its major metabolite cetirizine, it does cause drowsiness. It is also effective as an antiemetic, for relief of anxiety and tension, and as a sedative. [PubChem]
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group. -- Pubchem; Imipramine (sold as Antideprin, Janimine, Tofranil) is an antidepressant medication, a tricyclic antidepressant of the dibenzazepine group, mainly used in the treatment of clinical depression and enuresis. -- Wikipedia.
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
2-Acetyl-3,5,5,6,8,8-hexamethyl-5,6,7,8- tetrahydronaphthalene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as tetralins. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a tetralin moiety, which consists of a benzene fused to a cyclohexane.
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
3,5-Dimethoxyphenol is a toxin metabolite that can be found in human consuming yew (Taxus baccata) leaves. Autopsy findings of fatal intoxication with yew are nonspecific. A presence of plant residues in the digestive tract can signalize yew intoxication. If yew decoction is consumed, plant residues are not found. In such a case, the intoxication can be signalized by the presence of 3,5-dimethoxyphenol in biological material (PMID: 20942244).
Ifosfamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positional isomer of cyclophosphamide which is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppressive agent. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
1-naphthol (1N) is a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene that is an intermediate in Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450. It is generated by spontaneous reaction from (1R,2S)-Naphthalene epoxide then is it converted to 1,4-Dihydroxynaphthalene. Although 1-Naphthol is not persistent in the body, a single urine sample may adequately predict exposure over several months to chlorpyrifos, which is a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. In adult men, TCPY and 1N were associated with reduced testosterone levels (PMID:16357596, 15579421).
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
1-Hydroxypyrene is a metabolite of the noncarcinogen pyrene found in urine that is always a component of PAH mixtures. 1-Hydroxypyrene is an accepted biomarker of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) dose (PMID: 15159317). PAHs are a diverse group of environmental carcinogens formed during the incomplete combustion of organic matter. PAHs are believed to play an important role as causes of human cancer, particularly in certain occupational settings and in cigarette smokers (PMID: 15247141).
Budesonide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid used in the management of asthma, the treatment of various skin disorders, and allergic rhinitis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action of budesonide in the treatment of Crohn's disease is not fully understood. However, being a glucocorticosteroid, budesonide has a high local anti-inflammatory effect.
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
6-Decanolide is a food flavour ingredient. Not reported in nature.
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
1-naphthol (1N) is a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene that is an intermediate in Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450. It is generated by spontaneous reaction from (1R,2S)-Naphthalene epoxide then is it converted to 1,4-Dihydroxynaphthalene. Although 1-Naphthol is not persistent in the body, a single urine sample may adequately predict exposure over several months to chlorpyrifos, which is a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. In adult men, TCPY and 1N were associated with reduced testosterone levels (PMID:16357596, 15579421).
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
Systemic agricultural insecticide. Ethiofencarb is used for control of aphids on hard and soft fruits, vegetables and sugar bee
Piperine, also known as fema 2909, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Piperine is a pepper tasting compound. Piperine is found in the highest concentration within pepper (Piper nigrum) and many other Piper species. Piperine has also been detected, but not quantified, in dills and herbs and spices.  Piperine is responsible for the hot taste of pepper. Piperine has been used in trials studying the treatment of Multiple Myeloma and Deglutition Disorders. It is used to impart pungent taste to brandy.
3-Indolebutyric acid is an indolic tryptophan metabolite occasionally found in human urine. (PMID:7130309). 3-Indolebutyric acid is a plasma and urinary tryptophan-related metabolite related to metabolic and skin diseases. (PMID:15206797). Plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites in the umbilical vein and artery are significantly higher than those in the maternal vein. (PMID:1506727). 3-Indolebutyric acid has been shown to accelerated glucose uptake in the rat diaphragm. (PMID:6025019). 3-Indolebutyric acid is also a microbial netabolite, urinary indole-3-butyrate is produced by Clostridia sp. (PMID:6630445).
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Clomipramine, the 3-chloro analog of imipramine, is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, clomipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, clomipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as clomipramine, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Clomipramine may be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and disorders with an obsessive-compulsive component (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, Tourette's disorder). Unlabeled indications include panic disorder, chronic pain (e.g. central pain, idiopathic pain disorder, tension headache, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, neuropathic pain), cataplexy and associated narcolepsy, autistic disorder, trichotillomania, onchophagia, stuttering, premature ejaculation, and premenstrual syndrome. Clomipramine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
2,6-Dimethoxybenzoic acid is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Lamivudine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor and zalcitabine analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3&#39; carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B (HBV).Lamivudine is a synthetic nucleoside analogue and is phosphorylated intracellularly to its active 5'-triphosphate metabolite, lamivudine triphosphate (L-TP). This nucleoside analogue is incorporated into viral DNA by HIV reverse transcriptase and HBV polymerase, resulting in DNA chain termination.
1,11-Undecanedicarboxylic acid, also known as 1,13-tridecanedioic acid or brassilic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. 1,11-Undecanedicarboxylic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Poultry feed additive. Coccidiosta
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarin
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Tolcapone is a drug that inhibits the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT). It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa medication. It is a yellow, odorless, non-hygroscopic, crystalline compound. Tolcapone is associated with a risk of hepatotoxicity. [Wikipedia]
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
Systemic agricultural fungicid
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
cis-Zearalenone is a metabolite of Fusarium species.
Indapamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzamide-sulfonamide-indole. It is called a thiazide-like diuretic but structure is different enough (lacking the thiazo-ring) so it is not clear that the mechanism is comparable. [PubChem]Indapamide blocks the slow component of delayed rectifier potassium current (IKs) without altering the rapid component (IKr) or the inward rectifier current. Specifically it blocks or antagonizes the action the proteins KCNQ1 and KCNE1. Indapamide is also thought to stimulate the synthesis of the vasodilatory hypotensive prostaglandin PGE2.
Candoxatril is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the orally-active prodrug of candoxatrilat (UK-73967), the active enantiomer of candoxatrilat (UK-69578), a potent neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor used in the treatment of chronic heart failure.Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors such as Candoxatril have a dual mechanism of action. They inhibit two metalloprotease enzymes, neutral endopeptidase and ACE, resulting in an increased availability of natriuretic peptides that exhibit vasodilatory effects and, possibly, tissue protective effects.
Tolcapone is a drug that inhibits the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT). It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa medication. It is a yellow, odorless, non-hygroscopic, crystalline compound. Tolcapone is associated with a risk of hepatotoxicity. [Wikipedia]
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
Propyl gallate is found in corn. Propyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially animal fats and vegetable oils. Synergistic with other antioxidants such as Butylated hydroxyanisole <ht>DNB28-K</ht> and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol <ht>HCH42-H</ht>. Especially effective with polyunsaturated fats. Indirect food additive arising from paper or board packaging, adhesives and food contact polymers Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase. Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.[citation needed] As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310
A phenyl-piperidinyl-butyrophenone that is used primarily to treat schizophrenia and other psychoses. It is also used in schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorders, ballism, and tourette syndrome (a drug of choice) and occasionally as adjunctive therapy in mental retardation and the chorea of huntington disease. It is a potent antiemetic and is used in the treatment of intractable hiccups. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p279)
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group. -- Pubchem; Imipramine (sold as Antideprin, Janimine, Tofranil) is an antidepressant medication, a tricyclic antidepressant of the dibenzazepine group, mainly used in the treatment of clinical depression and enuresis. -- Wikipedia.
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Tolcapone is a drug that inhibits the enzyme catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT). It is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease as an adjunct to levodopa/carbidopa medication. It is a yellow, odorless, non-hygroscopic, crystalline compound. Tolcapone is associated with a risk of hepatotoxicity. [Wikipedia]
2-hydroxyflutamide is a metabolite of flutamide. Flutamide is an oral nonsteroidal antiandrogen drug primarily used to treat prostate cancer. It competes with testosterone and its powerful metabolite, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) for binding to androgen receptors in the prostate gland. By doing so, it prevents them from stimulating the prostate cancer cells to grow. Flutamide has been largely replaced by a newer member of this class, bicalutamide, due to a better side-effect profile. (Wikipedia)
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattl
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Methoxsalen, also known as oxsoralen or 8-methoxypsoralen, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 8-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C8 position of the psoralen group. Methoxsalen is a drug which is used for the treatment of psoriasis and vitiligo. Methoxsalen is a bitter tasting compound. Methoxsalen is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as parsnips, parsley, and celery stalks and in a lower concentration in wild carrots, carrots, and fennels. Methoxsalen has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as figs, green vegetables, corianders, dills, and fruits. Methoxsalen is a potentially toxic compound.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Physiological coolant used in foods, beverages, chewing gum, toiletries, topical pharmaceutical formulations and oral hygiene products.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
Liothyronine is a T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone that is finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3. Liothyronine is mildly toxic by ingestion and is an experimental teratogen. When heated to decomposition it emits toxic fumes of NOx, I(-), and Cl(-) (Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials).
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Piperine, also known as fema 2909, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Piperine is a pepper tasting compound. Piperine is found in the highest concentration within pepper (Piper nigrum) and many other Piper species. Piperine has also been detected, but not quantified, in dills and herbs and spices.  Piperine is responsible for the hot taste of pepper. Piperine has been used in trials studying the treatment of Multiple Myeloma and Deglutition Disorders. It is used to impart pungent taste to brandy.
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Dantrolene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug.Chemically, dantrolene is a hydantoin derivative, but does not exhibit antiepileptic activity like other hydantoin derivates such as phenytoin.Dantrolene depresses excitation-contraction coupling in skeletal muscle by binding to the ryanodine receptor 1, and decreasing intracellular calcium concentration. Ryanodine receptors mediate the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an essential step in muscle contraction.
Sebacic acid is a saturated, straight-chain naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid with 10 carbon atoms. Sebacic acid is a normal urinary acid. In patients with multiple acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD), also known as glutaric aciduria type II (GAII), a group of metabolic disorders due to deficiency of either electron transfer flavoprotein or electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase, biochemical data shows an increase in urine sebacic acid excretion. Sebacic acid is found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Sebacic acid is a white flake or powdered crystal slightly soluble in water that has been proposed as an alternative energy substrate in total parenteral nutrition. Sebacic Acid was named from the Latin sebaceus (tallow candle) or sebum (tallow) in reference to its use in the manufacture of candles. Sebacic acid and its derivatives such as azelaic acid have a variety of industrial uses as plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc. It is used in the synthesis of polyamide and alkyd resins. It is also used as an intermediate for aromatics, antiseptics and painting materials (PMID: 10556649, 1738216, 8442769, 12706375).
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Pargyline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor with antihypertensive properties. [PubChem]MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability. There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase, MAO-A and MAO-B. MAO-A preferentially deaminates serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine. MAO-B preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines. Pargyline functions by inhibiting the metabolism of catecholamines and tyramine within presynaptic nerve terminals. Catecholamines cause general physiological changes that prepare the body for physical activity (fight-or-flight response). Some typical effects are increases in heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and a general reaction of the sympathetic nervous system.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattl
A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used as an antidepressive agent. It has been shown to be effective in patients with major depressive disorders and other subsets of depressive disorders. It is generally more useful in depressive disorders associated with insomnia and anxiety. This drug does not aggravate psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p309)
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
A pyrazine compound inhibiting sodium reabsorption through sodium channels in renal epithelial cells. This inhibition creates a negative potential in the luminal membranes of principal cells, located in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Negative potential reduces secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions. Amiloride is used in conjunction with diuretics to spare potassium loss. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p705)
Testosterone Propionate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an ester of testosterone with a propionate substitution at the 17-beta position. [PubChem]The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of two main mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors. Free testosterone (T) is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5&alpha;-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5&alpha;-reductase. DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than T, so that its androgenic potency is about 2.5 times that of T. The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal DNA. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects.
Thiabendazole is active against a variety of nematodes and is the drug of choice for strongyloidiasis. It has CNS side effects and hepatototoxic potential. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p919)The precise mode of action of thiabendazole on the parasite is unknown, but it most likely inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme fumarate reductase. Thiabendazole is also used as a postharvest treatment for bananas, plantains and oranges. Registered in Canada for control of silver scurf in stored potatoes Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. Thiabendazole is also a chelating agent, which means that it is used medicinally to bind metals in cases of metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, mercury poisoning or antimony poisoning. Thiabendazole is vermicidal and/or vermifugal against <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> ("common roundworm"), <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> (threadworm), <i>Necator americanus</i>, <i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i> (hookworm), <i>Trichuris trichiura</i> (whipworm), <i>Ancylostoma braziliense</i> (dog and cat hookworm), <i>Toxocara canis</i>, <i>Toxocara cati</i> (ascarids), and <i>Enterobius vermicularis</i> (pinworm). Thiabendazole also suppresses egg and/or larval production and may inhibit the subsequent development of those eggs or larvae which are passed in the feces
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Theobromine, or 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, is the principle alkaloid in Theobroma cacao (the cacao bean) and other plants. A xanthine alkaloid that is used as a bronchodilator and as a vasodilator. It has a weaker diuretic activity than theophylline and is also a less powerful stimulant of smooth muscle. It has practically no stimulant effect on the central nervous system. It was formerly used as a diuretic and in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and caffeine. Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine. Theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the genus of the cacao tree, which is composed of the Greek roots theo ("God") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods". It is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate, and is one of the causes for chocolate's mood-elevating effects. The amount found in chocolate is small enough that chocolate can be safely consumed by humans in large quantities, but animals that metabolize theobromine more slowly, such as cats and dogs, can easily consume enough chocolate to cause chocolate poisoning. Theobromine is a stimulant frequently confused with caffeine. Theobromine has very different effects on the human body from caffeine; it is a mild, lasting stimulant with a mood improving effect, whereas caffeine has a strong, immediate effect and increases stress. In medicine, it is used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. There is a possible association between prostate cancer and theobromine. Theobromine is a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid access to the esophagus.
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)pyridine is a flavouring ingredien
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is manufactured via a catalytic reaction of phenol with diisobutylene. It is a member of the class of compounds known as phenylpropanes. Phenylpropanes are organic compounds that contain a phenylpropane moiety. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol can be found primarily in feces and urine. Within the cell, 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is biodegradable, and in the surface layer of natural waters, 30% of OP can be degraded within one day. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is acutely very toxic to aquatic organisms and may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. It is not acutely toxic to human health, but it is slightly irritating to the skin and highly irritating to the eyes. It is not genotoxic, but it may cause depigmentation of the skin. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is used as a food additive (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States).
Phenobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant.Phenobarbital acts on GABAA receptors, increasing synaptic inhibition. This has the effect of elevating seizure threshold and reducing the spread of seizure activity from a seizure focus. Phenobarbital may also inhibit calcium channels, resulting in a decrease in excitatory transmitter release. The sedative-hypnotic effects of phenobarbital are likely the result of its effect on the polysynaptic midbrain reticular formation, which controls CNS arousal.
Carbimazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an imidazole antithyroid agent. Carbimazole is metabolized to methimazole, which is responsible for the antithyroid activity. [PubChem]Carbimazole is an aitithyroid agent that decreases the uptake and concentration of inorganic iodine by thyroid, it also reduces the formation of di-iodotyrosine and thyroxine. Once converted to its active form of methimazole, it prevents the thyroid peroxidase enzyme from coupling and iodinating the tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, hence reducing the production of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
2-Biphenylol is found in lemon. It is an antifungal agent and preservative. 2-Biphenylol is used for post-harvest control of storage disease in apples, citrus fruit, stone fruit, tomatoes, cucumber and peppers through the use of impregnated wrapping materials or by direct application in a wax. 2-Biphenylol is used in food seasonings. Inhibitory to a wider range of moulds than Biphenyl <ht>HMJ12-A</ht>. The practical way of treatment is to immerse citrus fruit in an alkaline aqueous solution of the parent compound or its Na salt
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
Propylparaben, also known as propyl chemosept or propyl parasept, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Propylparaben is a sweet, burnt, and hawthorn tasting compound. Propylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent.
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
Nilutamide is an antineoplastic hormonal agent primarily used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nilutamide is a pure, nonsteroidal anti-androgen with affinity for androgen receptors (but not for progestogen, estrogen, or glucocorticoid receptors). Consequently, Nilutamide blocks the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin that stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Prostate cancer is mostly androgen-dependent and can be treated with surgical or chemical castration. To date, antiandrogen monotherapy has not consistently been shown to be equivalent to castration.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Candoxatril is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the orally-active prodrug of candoxatrilat (UK-73967), the active enantiomer of candoxatrilat (UK-69578), a potent neutral endopeptidase (NEP) inhibitor used in the treatment of chronic heart failure.Neutral endopeptidase inhibitors such as Candoxatril have a dual mechanism of action. They inhibit two metalloprotease enzymes, neutral endopeptidase and ACE, resulting in an increased availability of natriuretic peptides that exhibit vasodilatory effects and, possibly, tissue protective effects.
Acesulfame is a non-nutritive sweetener Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K (K being the symbol for potassium), and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code) E950. It was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG (now Nutrinova). In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the potassium salt of 6-methyl-1,2,3- oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder with molecular formula C4H4KNO4S and a molecular weight of 201.24.
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Systemic agricultural fungicid
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
2,6-Dimethoxybenzoic acid is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Propyl gallate is found in corn. Propyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially animal fats and vegetable oils. Synergistic with other antioxidants such as Butylated hydroxyanisole <ht>DNB28-K</ht> and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol <ht>HCH42-H</ht>. Especially effective with polyunsaturated fats. Indirect food additive arising from paper or board packaging, adhesives and food contact polymers Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase. Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.[citation needed] As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310
Cyprodinil is a fungicide
Enilconazole is an Agricultural fungicide Enilconazole is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. It is also called Imazalil, Chloramizole, Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
Salicylamide is the common name for the substance o-hydroxybenzamide, or amide of salicyl. Salicylamide is a non-prescription drug with analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its medicinal uses are similar to those of aspirin. Salicylamide is used in combination with both aspirin and caffeine in the over-the-counter pain remedies
2-Naphthol is a colorless crystalline solid and an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on naphthalene. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. 2-Naphthol has several different uses including dyes, pigments, fats, oils, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, antiseptics, synthesis of fungicides, and antioxidants for rubber. Detection of 2-Naphthol in urine usually results from long-term persistent exposure to pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, but also due to exposure to naphthalene in older types of mothballs, fires that produce polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and tobacco smoke.
One of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p337)
Anastrozole is a drug indicated in the treatment of breast cancer in post-menopausal women. It is used both in adjuvant therapy (i.e. following surgery) and in metastatic breast cancer. It decreases the amount of estrogens that the body makes. Anastrozole belongs in the class of drugs known as aromatase inhibitors. It inhibits the enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for converting androgens (produced by women in the adrenal glands) to estrogens.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Trilostane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an inhibitor of 3 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase used in the treatment of Cushing's syndrome. It was withdrawn from the United States market in April 1994. [Wikipedia]Trilostane produces suppression of the adrenal cortex by inhibiting enzymatic conversion of steroids by 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/delta 5,4 ketosteroid isomerase, thus blocking synthesis of adrenal steroids.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
2-Phenylethyl 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient.
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-hydroxy-4-unsubstituted benzenoids. These are phenols that are unsubstituted at the 4-position. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group. 3-Ethylphenol is a musty tasting compound. 3-Ethylphenol has been detected, but not quantified, in cauliflowers. This could make 3-ethylphenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 3-Ethylphenol is a potentially toxic compound.
2,5-dichlorophenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
6-Benzylaminopurine (6-BAP), also known as N6-benzyladenine or cytokinin B, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Outside of the human body, 6-benzylaminopurine has been detected, but not quantified in, garden tomato (var.) and wild celeries. This could make 6-benzylaminopurine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 6-Benzylaminopurine is a synthetic cytokinin applied externally postharvest to maintain the quality, delay senescence, and improve the nutritional value of green vegetables (PMID: 22148319).
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Systemic agricultural and horticultural fungicid
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Indinavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent and specific HIV protease inhibitor that appears to have good oral bioavailability. [PubChem]Indinavir inhibits the HIV viral protease enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Sulfisoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms. [PubChem]Sulfisoxazole is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. It inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by preventing the condensation of the pteridine with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is found in fruits. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is isolated from raspberries (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum species), European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus), blackberry, loganberry and redcurrants. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is an important flavour ingredient.
2-Phenylethyl 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient.
Pargyline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor with antihypertensive properties. [PubChem]MAOIs act by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, thus preventing the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters and thereby increasing their availability. There are two isoforms of monoamine oxidase, MAO-A and MAO-B. MAO-A preferentially deaminates serotonin, melatonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine. MAO-B preferentially deaminates phenylethylamine and trace amines. Pargyline functions by inhibiting the metabolism of catecholamines and tyramine within presynaptic nerve terminals. Catecholamines cause general physiological changes that prepare the body for physical activity (fight-or-flight response). Some typical effects are increases in heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels, and a general reaction of the sympathetic nervous system.
Suxibuzone is a drug used for joint and muscular pain. It is a prodrug of the non steroidal anti inflammatory drug phenylbutazone, and is commonly used in horses.
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
Famotidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production, and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD/GORD). It is commonly marketed by Merck under the trade names Pepcidine and Pepcid.
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea is a sweetening agent about 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is prohibited from human food use in U.S.A. and other countries
Fluorometholone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid employed, usually as eye drops, in the treatment of allergic and inflammatory conditions of the eye. It has also been used topically in the treatment of various skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p732)There is no generally accepted explanation for the mechanism of action of ocular corticosteroids. However, corticosteroids are thought to act by the induction of phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, collectively called lipocortins. It is postulated that these proteins control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes by inhibiting the release of their common precursor, arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is released from membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2. Their primary target is the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor. After binding the receptor the newly formed receptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to many glucocorticoid response elements (GRE) in the promoter region of the target genes. The DNA bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, causing the increase in expression of specific target genes.
Enilconazole is an Agricultural fungicide Enilconazole is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. It is also called Imazalil, Chloramizole, Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone
2-Acetyl-3,5,5,6,8,8-hexamethyl-5,6,7,8- tetrahydronaphthalene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as tetralins. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a tetralin moiety, which consists of a benzene fused to a cyclohexane.
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Testosterone Propionate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an ester of testosterone with a propionate substitution at the 17-beta position. [PubChem]The effects of testosterone in humans and other vertebrates occur by way of two main mechanisms: by activation of the androgen receptor (directly or as DHT), and by conversion to estradiol and activation of certain estrogen receptors. Free testosterone (T) is transported into the cytoplasm of target tissue cells, where it can bind to the androgen receptor, or can be reduced to 5&alpha;-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the cytoplasmic enzyme 5&alpha;-reductase. DHT binds to the same androgen receptor even more strongly than T, so that its androgenic potency is about 2.5 times that of T. The T-receptor or DHT-receptor complex undergoes a structural change that allows it to move into the cell nucleus and bind directly to specific nucleotide sequences of the chromosomal DNA. The areas of binding are called hormone response elements (HREs), and influence transcriptional activity of certain genes, producing the androgen effects.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) widely marketed under various trademarks including Act-3, Advil, Brufen, Motrin, Nuprin, and Nurofen. It is used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea, and fever; Ibuprofen is an NSAID which is believed to work through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. There are at least 2 variations of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), ibuprofen inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2. It appears that its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity are achieved principally through COX-2 inhibition; whereas COX-1 inhibition is responsible for its unwanted effects on platelet aggregation and the GI mucosa. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen inhibits platelet aggregation, but is not used therapeutically for this action since it is a minor and reversible effect. -- Wikipedia.
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Danazol is a synthetic steroid with anti-oestrogenic and anti progestogenic activity, and weak androgenic properties. Danazol suppresses oestrogen and progesterone receptors in the endometrium, leading to endometrial atrophy (thinning of the lining of the uterus) and reduced menstrual loss and to amenorrhoea in some women. Danazol significantly lowers the duration of menses when compared with NSAIDs and a progesterone releasing IUD; however, caused more adverse events than NSAIDs and progestogens. The use of Danazol may be limited by its side effect profile, its acceptability to women and the need for continuing treatment. Because danazol is structurally related to the anabolic steroid stanozolol, its use should be questioned. Derivatization methods and GC/MS data are used to implement danazol detection in routine screening and confirmation procedures in doping analysis. Danazol main metabolite ethisterone is excreted relatively fast in urine. (PMID: 17636649, 1640693, 16288903).
Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhone-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration on December 2006.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarin
12-Hydroxystearic acid, also known as 12-HSA, (CAS# 36377-33-0), can be found in edible vegetable oils such as canola oil and castor oil
Pyrimethamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the folic acid antagonists that is used as an antimalarial or with a sulfonamide to treat toxoplasmosis. [PubChem]Pyrimethamine inhibits the dihydrofolate reductase of plasmodia and thereby blocks the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines, which are essential for DNA synthesis and cell multiplication. This leads to failure of nuclear division at the time of schizont formation in erythrocytes and liver.
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Oxipurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. Oxipurinol is potentially used for treatment of congestive heart failure. PMID: 15139781.
Colchicine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a major alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale L. and found also in other Colchicum species. Its primary therapeutic use is in the treatment of gout, but it has been used also in the therapy of familial Mediterranean fever (periodic disease). [PubChem]The precise mechanism of action has not been completely established. In patients with gout, colchicine apparently interrupts the cycle of monosodium urate crystal deposition in joint tissues and the resultant inflammatory response that initiates and sustains an acute attack. Colchicine decreases leukocyte chemotaxis and phagocytosis and inhibits the formation and release of a chemotactic glycoprotein that is produced during phagocytosis of urate crystals. Colchicine also inhibits urate crystal deposition, which is enhanced by a low pH in the tissues, probably by inhibiting oxidation of glucose and subsequent lactic acid production in leukocytes. Colchicine has no analgesic or antihyperuricemic activity. Colchicine inhibits microtubule assembly in various cells, including leukocytes, probably by binding to and interfering with polymerization of the microtubule subunit tubulin. Although some studies have found that this action probably does not contribute significantly to colchicine's antigout action, a recent in vitro study has shown that it may be at least partially involved.
2-Naphthol is a colorless crystalline solid and an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on naphthalene. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. 2-Naphthol has several different uses including dyes, pigments, fats, oils, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, antiseptics, synthesis of fungicides, and antioxidants for rubber. Detection of 2-Naphthol in urine usually results from long-term persistent exposure to pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, but also due to exposure to naphthalene in older types of mothballs, fires that produce polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and tobacco smoke.
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
Nilutamide is an antineoplastic hormonal agent primarily used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nilutamide is a pure, nonsteroidal anti-androgen with affinity for androgen receptors (but not for progestogen, estrogen, or glucocorticoid receptors). Consequently, Nilutamide blocks the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin that stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Prostate cancer is mostly androgen-dependent and can be treated with surgical or chemical castration. To date, antiandrogen monotherapy has not consistently been shown to be equivalent to castration.
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Anthelmintic, used in cattle, sheep and horse
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Piperine, also known as fema 2909, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Piperine is a pepper tasting compound. Piperine is found in the highest concentration within pepper (Piper nigrum) and many other Piper species. Piperine has also been detected, but not quantified, in dills and herbs and spices.  Piperine is responsible for the hot taste of pepper. Piperine has been used in trials studying the treatment of Multiple Myeloma and Deglutition Disorders. It is used to impart pungent taste to brandy.
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
(±)-Fenarimol is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicide.
Gibberellic acid, also known as gibberellin A3, GA, or GA3, is a very potent hormone whose natural occurrence in plants controls their development. Since GA regulates growth, applications of very low concentrations can have a profound effect while too much will have the opposite effect. Gibberellic acid is a hormone found in plants. Gibberellic acid is a simple gibberellin promoting the growth and elongation of cells. It affects the decomposition of plants. It also helps plants grow if used in small amounts but eventually, plants grow a tolerance for it. Gibberellic acid stimulates the cells of germinating seeds to produce mRNA molecules that code for hydrolytic enzymes.
A pyrazine compound inhibiting sodium reabsorption through sodium channels in renal epithelial cells. This inhibition creates a negative potential in the luminal membranes of principal cells, located in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Negative potential reduces secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions. Amiloride is used in conjunction with diuretics to spare potassium loss. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p705)
Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug obtained from plants of the family Solanaceae (nightshades), such as henbane or jimson weed (Datura species). It is part of the secondary metabolites of plants. Scopolamine is used criminally as a date rape drug and as an aid to robbery, the most common act being the clandestine drugging of a victim's drink. It is preferred because it induces retrograde amnesia, or an inability to recall events prior to its administration. Victims of this crime are often admitted to a hospital in police custody, under the assumption that the patient is experiencing a psychotic episode. A telltale sign is a fever accompanied by a lack of sweat. An alkaloid from Solanaceae, especially Datura metel L. and Scopola carniolica. Scopolamine and its quaternary derivatives act as antimuscarinics like atropine, but may have more central nervous system effects. Among the many uses are as an anesthetic premedication, in urinary incontinence, in motion sickness, as an antispasmodic, and as a mydriatic and cycloplegic.
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea is a sweetening agent about 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is prohibited from human food use in U.S.A. and other countries
A chlorinated bisphenol antiseptic with a bacteriostatic action against Gram-positive organisms, but much less effective against Gram-negative organisms. It is mainly used in soaps and creams and is an ingredient of various preparations used for skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p797)
A potent calcium channel blockader with marked vasodilator action. It has antihypertensive properties and is effective in the treatment of angina and coronary spasms without showing cardiodepressant effects. It has also been used in the treatment of asthma and enhances the action of specific antineoplastic agents. [PubChem]
Enterolactone (CAS: 78473-71-9) is a mammalian lignan that has a similar biphenolic structure to lignans from plants. Lignans are compounds with estrogenic properties and are probably the most important source of phytoestrogens in western diets. Mammalian lignans are formed from precursors that are contained mainly in vegetables, whole grain products, and berries, via the action of intestinal microflora. Enterolactone is produced in the colon by the action of bacteria on secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol, and its glycosides. Secoisolariciresinol is converted to enterodiol which is subsequently converted to enterolactone as it passes through the colon. Matairesinol is converted directly to enterolactone. Enterolactone has been shown to possess weakly estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities, and it has been suggested that the high production of this antiestrogenic mammalian lignans in the gut may serve to protect against breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men; however epidemiological evidence to date is conflicting (PMID: 16168401, 12270221, 11216511, 12107024). Enterolactone is a biomarker for the consumption of soybeans and other soy products.
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Oxipurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. Oxipurinol is potentially used for treatment of congestive heart failure. PMID: 15139781.
A chlorinated bisphenol antiseptic with a bacteriostatic action against Gram-positive organisms, but much less effective against Gram-negative organisms. It is mainly used in soaps and creams and is an ingredient of various preparations used for skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p797)
1-naphthol (1N) is a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene that is an intermediate in Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450. It is generated by spontaneous reaction from (1R,2S)-Naphthalene epoxide then is it converted to 1,4-Dihydroxynaphthalene. Although 1-Naphthol is not persistent in the body, a single urine sample may adequately predict exposure over several months to chlorpyrifos, which is a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. In adult men, TCPY and 1N were associated with reduced testosterone levels (PMID:16357596, 15579421).
2,6-Dimethoxybenzoic acid is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Benzylideneacetone is a flavouring ingredient. Benzylideneacetone is present in hydrolysed soy protei
Adipic acid is an important inudstrial dicarboxylic acid with about 2.5 billion kilograms produced per year. It is used mainly in the production of nylon. It occurs relatively rarely in nature. It has a tart taste and is also used as an additive and gelling agent in jello or gelatins. It is also used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart. Adipic acid has also been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. Adipic acid in the urine and in the blood is typically exogenous in origin and is a good biomarker of jello consumption. In fact, a condition known as adipic aciduria is actually an artifact of jello consumption (PMID: 1779643). However, certain disorders (such as diabetes and glutaric aciduria type I.) can lead to elevated levels of adipic acid snd other dicarboxcylic acids (such as suberic acid) in urine (PMID: 17520433; PMID: 6778884). Moreover, adipic acid is also found to be associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, and medium Chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Adipic acid is also microbial metabolite found in Escherichia.
Lamivudine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor and zalcitabine analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3&#39; carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) and hepatitis B (HBV).Lamivudine is a synthetic nucleoside analogue and is phosphorylated intracellularly to its active 5'-triphosphate metabolite, lamivudine triphosphate (L-TP). This nucleoside analogue is incorporated into viral DNA by HIV reverse transcriptase and HBV polymerase, resulting in DNA chain termination.
(4-Ethoxyphenyl)urea is a sweetening agent about 250 times sweeter than sucrose. It is prohibited from human food use in U.S.A. and other countries
Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate, also known as heptylparaben or nipaheptyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is used as a food additive ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. "). Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is a potentially toxic compound. No indication of carcinogenicity to humans (not listed by IARC). These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. It is used as a food additive .
omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3, also known as Prochloraz-MN, is classified as a member of the Phenol ethers. Phenol ethers are aromatic compounds containing an ether group substituted with a benzene ring. omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic.  omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics. (From Merck Index, 12th ed; American Medical Association Drug Evaluations; 1995, p2275)
Ifosfamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positional isomer of cyclophosphamide which is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppressive agent. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
Enilconazole is an Agricultural fungicide Enilconazole is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. It is also called Imazalil, Chloramizole, Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
2-Methyl-2-[(1-oxo-2-propenyl)amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid is a fda approved for use in polymer components of food-contact paper and board adhesive
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Cyprodinil is a fungicide
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
Selective pre- and post-emergence herbicide. Acifluorfen is used on soybeans and peanuts.
2-(3-Phenylpropyl)pyridine is a flavouring ingredien
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
2-hydroxyflutamide is a metabolite of flutamide. Flutamide is an oral nonsteroidal antiandrogen drug primarily used to treat prostate cancer. It competes with testosterone and its powerful metabolite, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) for binding to androgen receptors in the prostate gland. By doing so, it prevents them from stimulating the prostate cancer cells to grow. Flutamide has been largely replaced by a newer member of this class, bicalutamide, due to a better side-effect profile. (Wikipedia)
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Salicylamide is the common name for the substance o-hydroxybenzamide, or amide of salicyl. Salicylamide is a non-prescription drug with analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its medicinal uses are similar to those of aspirin. Salicylamide is used in combination with both aspirin and caffeine in the over-the-counter pain remedies
Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic often considered the prototypical member of this class. It reduces the reabsorption of electrolytes from the renal tubules. This results in increased excretion of water and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including edema, hypertension, diabetes insipidus, and hypoparathyroidism. -- Pubchem. Hydrochlorothiazide (Apo-Hydro, Aquazide H, Microzide, Oretic), sometimes abbreviated HCT, HCTZ, or HZT is a popular diuretic drug that acts by inhibiting the kidney's ability to retain water. This reduces the volume of the blood, decreasing peripheral vascular resistance. Chlorothiazide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. --Wikipedia.
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Amiodarone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antianginal and antiarrhythmic drug. It increases the duration of ventricular and atrial muscle action by inhibiting Na,K-activated myocardial adenosine triphosphatase. There is a resulting decrease in heart rate and in vascular resistance. [PubChem]The antiarrhythmic effect of amiodarone may be due to at least two major actions. It prolongs the myocardial cell-action potential (phase 3) duration and refractory period and acts as a noncompetitive a- and b-adrenergic inhibitor.
A histamine H1 receptor antagonist that is effective in the treatment of chronic urticaria, dermatitis, and histamine-mediated pruritus. Unlike its major metabolite cetirizine, it does cause drowsiness. It is also effective as an antiemetic, for relief of anxiety and tension, and as a sedative. [PubChem]
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals(Wikipedia). DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Ethionamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis. It also may be used for treatment of leprosy. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p868)Ethionamide may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal in action, depending on the concentration of the drug attained at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the infecting organism. Ethionamide, like prothionamide and pyrazinamide, is a nicotinic acid derivative related to isoniazid. It is thought that ethionamide undergoes intracellular modification and acts in a similar fashion to isoniazid. Isoniazid inhibits the synthesis of mycoloic acids, an essential component of the bacterial cell wall. Specifically isoniazid inhibits InhA, the enoyl reductase from <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, by forming a covalent adduct with the NAD cofactor. It is the INH-NAD adduct that acts as a slow, tight-binding competitive inhibitor of InhA.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Sulfanilamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a molecule containing the sulfonamide functional group attached to an aniline. [Wikipedia]Sulfanilamide is a competitive inhibitor of bacterial enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. This enzyme normally uses para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) for synthesizing the necessary folic acid. The inhibited reaction is normally necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid. Without it, bacteria cannot replicate.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
Thioguanine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia. [PubChem]Thioguanine competes with hypoxanthine and guanine for the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRTase) and is itself converted to 6-thioguanilyic acid (TGMP), which reaches high intracellular concentrations at therapeutic doses. TGMP interferes with the synthesis of guanine nucleotides by its inhibition of purine biosynthesis by pseudofeedback inhibition of glutamine-5-phosphoribosylpyrophosphate amidotransferase, the first enzyme unique to the de novo pathway of purine ribonucleotide synthesis. TGMP also inhibits the conversion of inosinic acid (IMP) to xanthylic acid (XMP) by competition for the enzyme IMP dehydrogenase. Thioguanine nucleotides are incorporated into both the DNA and the RNA by phosphodiester linkages, and some studies have shown that incorporation of such false bases contributes to the cytotoxicity of thioguanine. Its tumor inhibitory properties may be due to one or more of its effects on feedback inhibition of de novo purine synthesis; inhibition of purine nucleotide interconversions; or incorporation into the DNA and RNA. The overall result of its action is a sequential blockade of the utilization and synthesis of the purine nucleotides.
Ethoxyquin is an antioxidant used in animal feeds and for the preservation of colour in the production of chili powder, paprika and ground chilli. Ethoxyquin is formerly used as an agricultural pesticide/herbicide, now superseded. Also used as a post-harvest dip for apples and pears to prevent scald.
Acesulfame is a non-nutritive sweetener Acesulfame potassium is a calorie-free artificial sweetener, also known as Acesulfame K or Ace K (K being the symbol for potassium), and marketed under the trade names Sunett and Sweet One. In the European Union, it is known under the E number (additive code) E950. It was discovered accidentally in 1967 by German chemist Karl Clauss at Hoechst AG (now Nutrinova). In chemical structure, acesulfame potassium is the potassium salt of 6-methyl-1,2,3- oxathiazine-4(3H)-one 2,2-dioxide. It is a white crystalline powder with molecular formula C4H4KNO4S and a molecular weight of 201.24.
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is found in animal foods. 6-Pentyl-2H-pyran-2-one is present in peach (Prunus persica) and heated beef. Comly. available flavour/aroma modifier; FDA approved flavouring. Shows antibacterial and antifugal propertie
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Tolazamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
A biguanide hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of metformin. Although it is generally considered to be associated with an unacceptably high incidence of lactic acidosis, often fatal, it is still available in some countries. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p290)
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
A diphenylbutylpiperidine that is effective as an antipsychotic agent and as an alternative to haloperidol for the suppression of vocal and motor tics in patients with Tourette syndrome. Although the precise mechanism of action is unknown, blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors has been postulated. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p403)
Sulfaquinoxaline is an antimicrobial and a coccidiostat for veterinary use. It is a potential food contaminant in animal products arising from its veterinary use.
Phenobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant.Phenobarbital acts on GABAA receptors, increasing synaptic inhibition. This has the effect of elevating seizure threshold and reducing the spread of seizure activity from a seizure focus. Phenobarbital may also inhibit calcium channels, resulting in a decrease in excitatory transmitter release. The sedative-hypnotic effects of phenobarbital are likely the result of its effect on the polysynaptic midbrain reticular formation, which controls CNS arousal.
An anticonvulsant that is used in a wide variety of seizures. It is also an anti-arrhythmic and a muscle relaxant. The mechanism of therapeutic action is not clear, although several cellular actions have been described including effects on ion channels, active transport, and general membrane stabilization. The mechanism of its muscle relaxant effect appears to involve a reduction in the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch. Phenytoin has been proposed for several other therapeutic uses, but its use has been limited by its many adverse effects and interactions with other drugs. [PubChem]
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
2-aminonaphthalene belongs to the family of Naphthalenes. These are compounds containing a naphthalene moiety, which consists of two fused benzene rings.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Carbimazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an imidazole antithyroid agent. Carbimazole is metabolized to methimazole, which is responsible for the antithyroid activity. [PubChem]Carbimazole is an aitithyroid agent that decreases the uptake and concentration of inorganic iodine by thyroid, it also reduces the formation of di-iodotyrosine and thyroxine. Once converted to its active form of methimazole, it prevents the thyroid peroxidase enzyme from coupling and iodinating the tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, hence reducing the production of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4.
Buspirone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the benzodiazepines, but it has an efficacy comparable to diazepam. [PubChem]Buspirone binds to 5-HT type 1A serotonin receptors on presynaptic neurons in the dorsal raphe and on postsynaptic neurons in the hippocampus, thus inhibiting the firing rate of 5-HT-containing neurons in the dorsal raphe. Buspirone also binds at dopamine type 2 (DA2) receptors, blocking presynaptic dopamine receptors. Buspirone increases firing in the locus ceruleus, an area of brain where norepinephrine cell bodies are found in high concentration. The net result of buspirone actions is that serotonergic activity is suppressed while noradrenergic and dopaminergic cell firing is enhanced.
Phenazopyridine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic that has been used in urinary tract disorders. Its use is limited by problems with toxicity (primarily blood disorders) and potential carcinogenicity. [PubChem]Phenazopyridine's mechanism of action is not well known, and only basic information on its interaction with the body is available. It is known that the chemical has a direct topical analgesic effect on the mucosa lining of the urinary tract.
2-Naphthalenol 2-aminobenzoate is a flavouring ingredient for beverages, baked goods and candies.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Salicylamide is the common name for the substance o-hydroxybenzamide, or amide of salicyl. Salicylamide is a non-prescription drug with analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its medicinal uses are similar to those of aspirin. Salicylamide is used in combination with both aspirin and caffeine in the over-the-counter pain remedies
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-hydroxy-4-unsubstituted benzenoids. These are phenols that are unsubstituted at the 4-position. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group. 3-Ethylphenol is a musty tasting compound. 3-Ethylphenol has been detected, but not quantified, in cauliflowers. This could make 3-ethylphenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 3-Ethylphenol is a potentially toxic compound.
One of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p337)
A biguanide hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of metformin. Although it is generally considered to be associated with an unacceptably high incidence of lactic acidosis, often fatal, it is still available in some countries. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p290)
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Mecarbam is an Agricultural insecticide and acaricide with slightly systemic properties
Clomipramine, the 3-chloro analog of imipramine, is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, clomipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, clomipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as clomipramine, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Clomipramine may be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and disorders with an obsessive-compulsive component (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, Tourette's disorder). Unlabeled indications include panic disorder, chronic pain (e.g. central pain, idiopathic pain disorder, tension headache, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, neuropathic pain), cataplexy and associated narcolepsy, autistic disorder, trichotillomania, onchophagia, stuttering, premature ejaculation, and premenstrual syndrome. Clomipramine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3, also known as Prochloraz-MN, is classified as a member of the Phenol ethers. Phenol ethers are aromatic compounds containing an ether group substituted with a benzene ring. omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic.  omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound
Flutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antiandrogen with about the same potency as cyproterone in rodent and canine species.Flutamide is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen that blocks the action of both endogenous and exogenous testosterone by binding to the androgen receptor. In addition Flutamide is a potent inhibitor of testosterone-stimulated prostatic DNA synthesis. Moreover, it is capable of inhibiting prostatic nuclear uptake of androgen.
The prototypical tricyclic antidepressant. It has been used in major depression, dysthymia, bipolar depression, attention deficit disorders, agoraphobia, and panic disorders. It has less sedative effect than some other members of this therapeutic group. -- Pubchem; Imipramine (sold as Antideprin, Janimine, Tofranil) is an antidepressant medication, a tricyclic antidepressant of the dibenzazepine group, mainly used in the treatment of clinical depression and enuresis. -- Wikipedia.
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1-hydroxy-4-unsubstituted benzenoids. These are phenols that are unsubstituted at the 4-position. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group. 3-Ethylphenol is a musty tasting compound. 3-Ethylphenol has been detected, but not quantified, in cauliflowers. This could make 3-ethylphenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 3-Ethylphenol is a potentially toxic compound.
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Cladribine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia. [PubChem]Cladribine is structurally related to fludarabine and pentostatin but has a different mechanism of action. Although the exact mechanism of action has not been fully determined, evidence shows that cladribine is phosphorylated by deoxycytidine kinase to the nucleotidecladribine triphosphate (CdATP; 2-chloro-2â€²-deoxyadenosine 5â€²-triphosphate), which accumulates and is incorporated into DNA in cells such as lymphocytes that contain high levels of deoxycytidine kinase and low levels of deoxynucleotidase, resulting in DNA strand breakage and inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair. High levels of CdATP also appear to inhibit ribonucleotide reductase, which leads to an imbalance in triphosphorylated deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pools and subsequent DNA strand breaks, inhibition of DNA synthesis and repair, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and ATP depletion, and cell death. Unlike other antimetabolite drugs, cladribine has cytotoxic effects on resting as well as proliferating lymphocytes. However, it does cause cells to accumulate at the G1/S phase junction, suggesting that cytotoxicity is associated with events critical to cell entry into S phase. It also binds purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP), however no relationship between this binding and a mechanism of action has been established.
A pyrazine compound inhibiting sodium reabsorption through sodium channels in renal epithelial cells. This inhibition creates a negative potential in the luminal membranes of principal cells, located in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Negative potential reduces secretion of potassium and hydrogen ions. Amiloride is used in conjunction with diuretics to spare potassium loss. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p705)
Colchicine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a major alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale L. and found also in other Colchicum species. Its primary therapeutic use is in the treatment of gout, but it has been used also in the therapy of familial Mediterranean fever (periodic disease). [PubChem]The precise mechanism of action has not been completely established. In patients with gout, colchicine apparently interrupts the cycle of monosodium urate crystal deposition in joint tissues and the resultant inflammatory response that initiates and sustains an acute attack. Colchicine decreases leukocyte chemotaxis and phagocytosis and inhibits the formation and release of a chemotactic glycoprotein that is produced during phagocytosis of urate crystals. Colchicine also inhibits urate crystal deposition, which is enhanced by a low pH in the tissues, probably by inhibiting oxidation of glucose and subsequent lactic acid production in leukocytes. Colchicine has no analgesic or antihyperuricemic activity. Colchicine inhibits microtubule assembly in various cells, including leukocytes, probably by binding to and interfering with polymerization of the microtubule subunit tubulin. Although some studies have found that this action probably does not contribute significantly to colchicine's antigout action, a recent in vitro study has shown that it may be at least partially involved.
A cholinesterase inhibitor that is rapidly absorbed through membranes. It can be applied topically to the conjunctiva. It also can cross the blood-brain barrier and is used when central nervous system effects are desired, as in the treatment of severe anticholinergic toxicity. [PubChem]
Tolnaftate is a synthetic over-the-counter anti-fungal agent. It may come as a cream, powder, spray, or liquid aerosol, and is used to treat jock itch, athlete's foot and ringworm. It is sold under several brand names, most notably Tinactin (Schering-Plough Corporation) and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.
Milrinone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positive inotropic cardiotonic agent with vasodilator properties. Milrinone inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, Milrinone also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It also inhibits cAMP phosphodiesterase activity in myocardium and vascular smooth muscle. Milrinone is a derivative of amrinone and has 20-30 times the ionotropic potency of amrinone. [PubChem]
desloratadine is available off the shelf in Canada); Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.
Adipic acid is an important inudstrial dicarboxylic acid with about 2.5 billion kilograms produced per year. It is used mainly in the production of nylon. It occurs relatively rarely in nature. It has a tart taste and is also used as an additive and gelling agent in jello or gelatins. It is also used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart. Adipic acid has also been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. Adipic acid in the urine and in the blood is typically exogenous in origin and is a good biomarker of jello consumption. In fact, a condition known as adipic aciduria is actually an artifact of jello consumption (PMID: 1779643). However, certain disorders (such as diabetes and glutaric aciduria type I.) can lead to elevated levels of adipic acid snd other dicarboxcylic acids (such as suberic acid) in urine (PMID: 17520433; PMID: 6778884). Moreover, adipic acid is also found to be associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, and medium Chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Adipic acid is also microbial metabolite found in Escherichia.
Physiological coolant used in foods, beverages, chewing gum, toiletries, topical pharmaceutical formulations and oral hygiene products.
1-Hydroxypyrene is a metabolite of the noncarcinogen pyrene found in urine that is always a component of PAH mixtures. 1-Hydroxypyrene is an accepted biomarker of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) dose (PMID: 15159317). PAHs are a diverse group of environmental carcinogens formed during the incomplete combustion of organic matter. PAHs are believed to play an important role as causes of human cancer, particularly in certain occupational settings and in cigarette smokers (PMID: 15247141).
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
Nitrofurazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial wounds, burns, ulcers, and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of trypanosomiasis. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown. Nitrofurazone inhibits several bacterial enzymes, especially those involved in the aerobic and anaerobic degradation of glucose and pyruvate. This activity is believed also to affect pyruvate dehydrogenase, citrate synthetase, malate dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, and pyruvate decarboxylase.
Glipizide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral hypoglycemic agent which is rapidly absorbed and completely metabolized. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas likely bind to ATP-sensitive potassium-channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels, raising intracellular concentrations of calcium ions, which induces the secretion, or exocytosis, of insulin.
4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is manufactured via a catalytic reaction of phenol with diisobutylene. It is a member of the class of compounds known as phenylpropanes. Phenylpropanes are organic compounds that contain a phenylpropane moiety. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol can be found primarily in feces and urine. Within the cell, 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is biodegradable, and in the surface layer of natural waters, 30% of OP can be degraded within one day. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is acutely very toxic to aquatic organisms and may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. It is not acutely toxic to human health, but it is slightly irritating to the skin and highly irritating to the eyes. It is not genotoxic, but it may cause depigmentation of the skin. 4-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)-phenol is used as a food additive (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States).
Acetohexamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agent that is metabolized in the liver to 1-hydrohexamide. [PubChem]Sulfonylureas such as acetohexamide bind to an ATP-dependent K<sup>+</sup> channel on the cell membrane of pancreatic beta cells. This inhibits a tonic, hyperpolarizing outflux of potassium, which causes the electric potential over the membrane to become more positive. This depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels. The rise in intracellular calcium leads to increased fusion of insulin granulae with the cell membrane, and therefore increased secretion of (pro)insulin.
A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used as an antidepressive agent. It has been shown to be effective in patients with major depressive disorders and other subsets of depressive disorders. It is generally more useful in depressive disorders associated with insomnia and anxiety. This drug does not aggravate psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p309)
4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is found in fruits. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is isolated from raspberries (Rubus idaeus), rhubarb (Rheum species), European cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus), blackberry, loganberry and redcurrants. 4-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone is an important flavour ingredient.
Lauroyl diethanolamide is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]")
5'-Methylthioadenosine, also known as MTA or thiomethyladenosine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5'-deoxy-5'-thionucleosides. These are 5'-deoxyribonucleosides in which the ribose is thio-substituted at the 5'position by a S-alkyl group. 5'-Methylthioadenosine is metabolized solely by MTA-phosphorylase, to yield 5-methylthioribose-1-phosphate and adenine, a crucial step in the methionine and purine salvage pathways, respectively. 5'-Methylthioadenosine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. 5'-Methylthioadenosine (MTA) is a naturally occurring sulfur-containing nucleoside present in all mammalian tissues. Within humans, 5'-methylthioadenosine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 5'-methylthioadenosine and spermidine can be biosynthesized from S-adenosylmethioninamine and putrescine through the action of the enzyme spermidine synthase. In addition, 5'-methylthioadenosine can be converted into 5-methylthioribose 1-phosphate and L-methionine; which is catalyzed by the enzyme S-methyl-5'-thioadenosine phosphorylase. It is produced from S-adenosylmethionine mainly through the polyamine biosynthetic pathway, where it behaves as a powerful inhibitory product. For instance, 5'-Methylthioadenosine has been shown to influence the regulation of gene expression, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis (PMID:15313459). In humans, 5'-methylthioadenosine is involved in the metabolic disorder called hypermethioninemia. Outside of the human body, 5'-Methylthioadenosine has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as soursops, allspices, summer grapes, alaska wild rhubarbs, and breadfruits. Elevated excretion appears in children with severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (SCID) (PMID:3987052). Evidence suggests that 5'-Methylthioadenosine can affect cellular processes in many ways. 5'-Methylthioadenosine can be found in human urine.
Cystathione, also known as dl-cystathionine, belongs to cysteine and derivatives class of compounds. Those are compounds containing cysteine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of cysteine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Cystathione is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cystathione can be found in corn, which makes cystathione a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product. Cystathione may be a unique E.coli metabolite.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Vanillic acid is a phenolic acid found in some forms of vanilla and many other plant extracts. It is a flavouring and scent agent that produces a pleasant, creamy odour. It is the intermediate product in the two-step bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillin (J Biotechnol 1996;50(2-3):107-13). Vanillic acid, which is a chlorogenic acid, is an oxidized form of vanillin. It is also an intermediate in the production of vanillin from ferulic acid. Vanillic acid is a metabolic byproduct of caffeic acid and is often found in the urine of humans who have consumed coffee, chocolate, tea, and vanilla-flavoured confectionary. Vanillic acid selectively and specifically inhibits 5'nucleotidase activity (PMID: 16899266). Vanillic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Amycolatopsis, Delftia, and Pseudomonas (PMID: 11152072, 10543794, 11728709, 9579070).
Alanylalanine is a dipeptide composed of two alanine residues. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Vanillin, also known as vanillaldehyde or lioxin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. It is used by the food industry as well as ethylvanillin. Vanillin exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Vanillin is a sweet, chocolate, and creamy tasting compound. Vanillin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as corns, ryes, and sherries and in a lower concentration in beers, rums, and oats. Vanillin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as gooseberries, other bread, brazil nuts, shea tree, and ohelo berries. This could make vanillin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Vanillin is a potentially toxic compound. Synthetic vanillin, instead of natural Vanillin extract, is sometimes used as a flavouring agent in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. Vanillin is the primary component of the extract of the Vanillin bean. Because of the scarcity and expense of natural Vanillin extract, there has long been interest in the synthetic preparation of its predominant component. Artificial Vanillin flavoring is a solution of pure vanillin, usually of synthetic origin. Today, artificial vanillin is made from either guaiacol or from lignin, a constituent of wood which is a byproduct of the paper industry. The first commercial synthesis of vanillin began with the more readily available natural compound eugenol.
Allantoin is a diureide of glyoxylic acid with the chemical formula C4H6N4O3. It is also called 5-ureidohydantoin or glyoxyldiureide. It is a product of the oxidation of uric acid. It is also a product of purine metabolism in most mammals except for higher apes, and it is present in their urine. In humans, uric acid is excreted instead of allantoin. The presence of allantoin in the urine can be an indication of microbial overgrowth or it can be created via non-enzymatic means through high levels of reactive oxygen species. In this regard, allantoin is sometimes used as a marker of oxidative stress. Allantoin can be isolated from cow urine or as a botanical extract of the comfrey plant. It has long been used for its healing, soothing, and anti-irritating properties. Allantoin helps to heal wounds and skin irritations and stimulates the growth of healthy tissue. Allantoin can be found in anti-acne products, sun care products, and clarifying lotions because of its ability to help heal minor wounds and promote healthy skin. Allantoin is frequently present in toothpaste, mouthwash, and other oral hygiene products as well as in shampoos, lipsticks, various cosmetic lotions and creams, and other cosmetic and pharmaceutical products. It is also a metabolite of Bacillus (PMID: 18302748) and Streptomyces (PMID: 24292080).
Citramalic acid, also known as 2-Methylmalic acid, is an analog of malic acid. The structure of citramalic acid is similar to the structure of malic acid except it has an extra CH3 group on position 2. It is also classified as a 2-hydroxydicarboxylic acid. Citramalic acid exists in two isomers, L-citramalic acid and D-citramalic acid.  The L-isomer is more biologically relevant isomer. Citramalic acid is found in almost all living organisms from microbes to plants to humans although citramalate is primarily produced from bacteria. L-citramalic acid was first isolated from the peel of apples in 1954 (PMID: 13160011). It has also been isolated in wine and other ripening fruit (PMID: 13807713). Citramalic acid can inhibit the production of malic acid. Citramalic acid is also an important microbial metabolite and has been found to be a byproduct of Saccharomyces yeast species, as well as Propionibacterium acnes and Aspergillus niger (PMID: 31827810) (http://drweyrich.weyrich.com/labs/oat.html) (PMID: 7628083). Citramalic acid is a component of the C5-branched dibasic acid metabolism pathway. It can be broken down by the enzyme citramalate lyase, which converts citramalate to acetate and pyruvate. Citramalate synthase is an enzyme found in bacteria that synthesizes citramalic acid from acetyl-CoA, pyruvate and water. Citramalic acid may have a useful role in medical diagnoses. It has been found in the urine of two brothers with autistic features (PMID: 7628083). Citramalic acid can also be used as a urinary marker for gut dysbiosis (PMID: 31669633). Dysbiosis is a disorder of the bacterial flora of the human digestive tract. It is usually diagnosed clinically by direct detection of an abnormal pattern of the intestinal microbiota.
Ketoleucine is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids. Ketoleucine is both a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of ketoleucine are associated with maple syrup urine disease (MSUD). MSUD is a metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC), leading to a buildup of the branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) and their toxic by-products (ketoacids) in the blood and urine. The symptoms of MSUD often show in infancy and lead to severe brain damage if untreated. MSUD may also present later depending on the severity of the disease. If left untreated in older individuals, during times of metabolic crisis, symptoms of the condition include uncharacteristically inappropriate, extreme, or erratic behaviour and moods, hallucinations, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, lethargy, oscillating hypertonia and hypotonia, ataxia, seizures, hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, opisthotonus, pancreatitis, rapid neurological decline, and coma.  In maple syrup urine disease, the brain concentration of branched-chain ketoacids can increase 10- to 20-fold. This leads to a depletion of glutamate and a consequent reduction in the concentration of brain glutamine, aspartate, alanine, and other amino acids. The result is a compromise of energy metabolism because of a failure of the malate-aspartate shuttle and a diminished rate of protein synthesis (PMID: 15930465).
Trigonelline, also known as caffearin or gynesine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. It is also found in coffee, where it may help to prevent dental caries by preventing the bacteria Streptococcus mutans from adhering to teeth. Trigonelline is an alkaloid with chemical formula C7H7NO2 and CAS number 535-83-1. Trigonelline is a product of the metabolism of niacin (vitamin B3) which is excreted in the urine. High amounts of trigonelline have been found in arabica coffee, fenugreeks, and common peas. Another foods such as yellow bell peppers, orange bellpeppers and muskmelons also contain trigonelline but in lower concentrations. Trigonelline has also been detected but not quantified in several different foods, such as rices, triticales, alfalfa, cereals and cereal products, and ryes. Trigonelline in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of coffee, legumes and soy products.
Cytosine, also known as C, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidones. Pyrimidones are compounds that contain a pyrimidine ring, which bears a ketone. Pyrimidine is a 6-membered ring consisting of four carbon atoms and two nitrogen centers at the 1- and 3- ring positions. Cytosine is also classified as a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). Cytosine is one of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. In Watson-Crick base pairing, cytosine forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine. Cytosine was discovered and named by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues. Cytosine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. Within cells, cytosine can undergo several enzymatic reactions. It can be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. The DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) family of enzymes transfer a methyl group from S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAM) to the 5‚Äô carbon of cytosine in a molecule of DNA. High levels of cytosine can be found in the urine of individuals with severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (SCID). Cytosine concentrations as high as (23-160 mmol/mol creatinine) were detected in SCID patients compared to normal levels of <2 mmol/mol creatinine (PMID: 262183).
m-Aminobenzoic acid (also known as 3-aminobenzoic acid or MABA) is an organic compound with the molecular formula H2NC6H4CO2H. MABA is a white solid, although commercial samples are often colored. It is only slightly soluble in water. It is soluble in acetone, boiling water, hot alcohol, hot chloroform and ether. It consists of a benzene ring substituted with an amino group and a carboxylic acid. m-Aminobenzoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as aminobenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids containing an amine group attached to the benzene moiety. Outside of the human body, m-Aminobenzoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in cow milk. This could make m-aminobenzoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Cystathione, also known as dl-cystathionine, belongs to cysteine and derivatives class of compounds. Those are compounds containing cysteine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of cysteine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Cystathione is soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cystathione can be found in corn, which makes cystathione a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product. Cystathione may be a unique E.coli metabolite.
4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde, also known as 4-formylphenol or 4-hydroxybenzenecarbonal, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxybenzaldehydes. These are organic aromatic compounds containing a benzene ring carrying an aldehyde group and a hydroxyl group. A hydroxybenzaldehyde that is benzaldehyde substituted with a hydroxy group at position C-4. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is a sweet, almond, and balsam tasting compound. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is found, on average, in the highest concentration within vinegars and oats. 4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as cardoons, colorado pinyons, oyster mushrooms, common chokecherries, and potato. This could make 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
3-Hydroxybenzoic acid, also known as 3-hydroxybenzoate or 3-carboxyphenol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives are compounds containing a hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxyl and a hydroxyl groups. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration in american cranberries and beers. 3-hydroxybenzoic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as bilberries, citrus, and corns. As well, 3-Hydroxybenzoic Acid can be found in the pineapple fruit. It can also be formed by a Pseudomonas species from 3-Chlorobenzoic acid. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid can be obtained by the alkali fusion of 3-sulfobenzoic acid between 210-220 °C. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acid is a component of castoreum, the exudate from the castor sacs of the mature North American beaver (Castor canadensis) and the European beaver (Castor fiber), used in perfumery.
Aesculetin, also known as cichorigenin or cichoriin aglucon, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6,7-dihydroxycoumarins. These are coumarins bearing two hydroxyl groups at positions 6 and 7 of the coumarin skeleton, respectively. Aesculetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within sherries. Aesculetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as horseradish, carrots, dandelions, grape wines, and highbush blueberries. This could make aesculetin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
S-Aminoethyl-L-cysteine, also known as thialysine, is a toxic analog of the amino acid lysine in which the second carbon of the amino acid's R-group (side chain) has been replaced with a sulfur atom. 4-thialysine is a substrate of lysine 2,3-aminomutase.
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide (NAM), is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. Niacinamide belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nicotinamides. These are heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing a pyridine ring substituted at position 3 by a carboxamide group. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Niacinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate can be converted into nicotinic acid mononucleotide and phosphate by the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase. In humans, niacinamide is involved in the metabolic disorder called the nad+ signalling pathway (cancer). Niacinamide is an odorless tasting compound. Outside of the human body, niacinamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common sages, cow milk, and cocoa beans and in a lower concentration in common pea. Niacinamide has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as yardlong beans, roselles, apples, oyster mushrooms, and swiss chards. Niacinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables. It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B3 and it is also available in higher doses. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake.
Aesculetin, also known as cichorigenin or cichoriin aglucon, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6,7-dihydroxycoumarins. These are coumarins bearing two hydroxyl groups at positions 6 and 7 of the coumarin skeleton, respectively. Aesculetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within sherries. Aesculetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as horseradish, carrots, dandelions, grape wines, and highbush blueberries. This could make aesculetin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Ectoine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha-amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Ectoine has been identified in urine (PMID: 22409530).
Alanylalanine is a dipeptide composed of two alanine residues. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Emodin is found in dock. Emodin is present in Cascara sagrada.Emodin is a purgative resin from rhubarb, Polygonum cuspidatum, the buckthorn and Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica). The term may also refer to any one of a series of principles isomeric with the emodin of rhubarb. (Wikipedia
Adenylic acid. Adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety in the 2'-, 3'-, or 5'-position. 3'-AMP has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212).
This compound belongs to the family of Monosaccharide Phosphates. These are monosaccharides comprising a phosphated group linked tot he carbohydrate unit.
Cytidine is a nucleoside that is composed of the base cytosine linked to the five-carbon sugar D-ribose. Cytidine is a pyrimidine that besides being incorporated into nucleic acids, can serve as a substrate for the salvage pathway of pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. It is a precursor of cytidine triphosphate (CTP) needed in the phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) biosynthetic pathways. These variations probably reflect the species differences in cytidine deaminase, the enzyme that converts cytidine to uridine in the body. The transport of cytidine into the brain's extracellular fluid, and then into neurons and glia, are essential prerequisites for cytidine to be utilized in the brain. An efficient mechanism mediating the brain uptake of circulating cytidine has not yet been demonstrated. The biosynthesis of PC, the most abundant phosphatide in the brain, via the Kennedy pathway requires phosphocholine and cytidine triphosphate (CTP), a cytidine nucleotide involved in the rate-limiting step. The enzyme that converts CTP to endogenous CDP-choline (CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase) is unsaturated at physiological brain CTP levels. APOBEC is a family of enzymes that has been discovered with the ability to deaminate cytidines on RNA or DNA. The human apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G protein (APOBEC3G, or hA3G), provides cells with an intracellular antiretroviral activity that is associated with the hypermutation of viral DNA through cytidine deamination. Indeed, hA3G belongs to a family of vertebrate proteins that contains one or two copies of a signature sequence motif unique to cytidine deaminases (CTDAs) (PMID: 16769123, 15780864, 16720547).
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
4-Guanidinobutanoic acid, also known as gamma-guanidinobutyrate or 4-(carbamimidamido)butanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as gamma amino acids and derivatives. These are amino acids having a (-NH2) group attached to the gamma carbon atom. 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid is a normal metabolite present in low concentrations. 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Outside of the human body, 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as apples, french plantains, and loquats. This could make 4-guanidinobutanoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Patients with hyperargininemia have an arginase deficiency which leads to blockade of the urea cycle in the last step with several clinical symptoms. Owing to the arginase deficiency this patients accumulate arginine which leads eventually to epileptogenic guanidino compounds (PMID 7752905).
Cytidine is a nucleoside that is composed of the base cytosine linked to the five-carbon sugar D-ribose. Cytidine is a pyrimidine that besides being incorporated into nucleic acids, can serve as a substrate for the salvage pathway of pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis. It is a precursor of cytidine triphosphate (CTP) needed in the phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) biosynthetic pathways. These variations probably reflect the species differences in cytidine deaminase, the enzyme that converts cytidine to uridine in the body. The transport of cytidine into the brain's extracellular fluid, and then into neurons and glia, are essential prerequisites for cytidine to be utilized in the brain. An efficient mechanism mediating the brain uptake of circulating cytidine has not yet been demonstrated. The biosynthesis of PC, the most abundant phosphatide in the brain, via the Kennedy pathway requires phosphocholine and cytidine triphosphate (CTP), a cytidine nucleotide involved in the rate-limiting step. The enzyme that converts CTP to endogenous CDP-choline (CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase) is unsaturated at physiological brain CTP levels. APOBEC is a family of enzymes that has been discovered with the ability to deaminate cytidines on RNA or DNA. The human apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G protein (APOBEC3G, or hA3G), provides cells with an intracellular antiretroviral activity that is associated with the hypermutation of viral DNA through cytidine deamination. Indeed, hA3G belongs to a family of vertebrate proteins that contains one or two copies of a signature sequence motif unique to cytidine deaminases (CTDAs) (PMID: 16769123, 15780864, 16720547).
Adipic acid is an important inudstrial dicarboxylic acid with about 2.5 billion kilograms produced per year. It is used mainly in the production of nylon. It occurs relatively rarely in nature. It has a tart taste and is also used as an additive and gelling agent in jello or gelatins. It is also used in some calcium carbonate antacids to make them tart. Adipic acid has also been incorporated into controlled-release formulation matrix tablets to obtain pH-independent release for both weakly basic and weakly acidic drugs. Adipic acid in the urine and in the blood is typically exogenous in origin and is a good biomarker of jello consumption. In fact, a condition known as adipic aciduria is actually an artifact of jello consumption (PMID: 1779643). However, certain disorders (such as diabetes and glutaric aciduria type I.) can lead to elevated levels of adipic acid snd other dicarboxcylic acids (such as suberic acid) in urine (PMID: 17520433; PMID: 6778884). Moreover, adipic acid is also found to be associated with 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, and medium Chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Adipic acid is also microbial metabolite found in Escherichia.
4-Guanidinobutanoic acid, also known as gamma-guanidinobutyrate or 4-(carbamimidamido)butanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as gamma amino acids and derivatives. These are amino acids having a (-NH2) group attached to the gamma carbon atom. 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid is a normal metabolite present in low concentrations. 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Outside of the human body, 4-Guanidinobutanoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as apples, french plantains, and loquats. This could make 4-guanidinobutanoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Patients with hyperargininemia have an arginase deficiency which leads to blockade of the urea cycle in the last step with several clinical symptoms. Owing to the arginase deficiency this patients accumulate arginine which leads eventually to epileptogenic guanidino compounds (PMID 7752905).
Adenylic acid. Adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety in the 2'-, 3'-, or 5'-position. 3'-AMP has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212).
Ectoine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha-amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Ectoine has been identified in urine (PMID: 22409530).
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
Aminoadipic acid, also known as a-aminoadipate or Aad, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha amino acids. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). Aminoadipic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Aminoadipic acid exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Within humans, aminoadipic acid participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, aminoadipic acid can be biosynthesized from allysine; which is mediated by the enzyme Alpha-aminoadipic semialdehyde dehydrogenase. In addition, aminoadipic acid and oxoglutaric acid can be converted into oxoadipic acid and L-glutamic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme kynurenine/alpha-aminoadipate aminotransferase, mitochondrial. In humans, aminoadipic acid is involved in the metabolic disorder called 2-aminoadipic 2-oxoadipic aciduria. Outside of the human body, Aminoadipic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, milk (cow), and ryes and in a lower concentration in dills, garden onions, and white cabbages. Aminoadipic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as barley, cow milks, cow milks, cow milks, and cow milks. This could make aminoadipic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Aminoadipic acid is a potentially toxic compound. Aminoadipic acid, with regard to humans, has been found to be associated with several diseases such as alpha-aminoadipic and alpha-ketoadipic aciduria, colorectal cancer, metastatic melanoma, and eosinophilic esophagitis; aminoadipic acid has also been linked to the inborn metabolic disorder 2-ketoadipic acidemia.
Aspartylphenylalanine is a dipeptide composed of aspartate and phenylalanine, and is a metabolic byproduct of its methyl ester, aspartame (Nutrasweet). After hydrolysis of the ester bond in the intestinal lumen, the dipeptide is apparently absorbed and digested in the same manner as dipeptides derived from protein digestion. There are several Asp-Phe dipeptidases that degrade this peptide. It has been suggested that individuals with aspartame allergies may be deficient in this peptidase (PMID: 3743970). It has been observed that N-beta-aspartylphenylalanine (a breakdown product of Asp-Phe) is a naturally occurring peptide found in both blood and urine (PMID: 2723819).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Caproic acid, also known as hexanoic acid or C6:0, is a medium-chain fatty acid. Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6 to 12 carbons, which can form medium-chain triglycerides. Caproic acid is a colourless oily liquid that smells like cheese with an overlying waxy or barnyard odor like that of goats or other barnyard animals. Its name comes from the Latin word capra, meaning "goat". Two other fatty acids are named after goats: caprylic acid (C8) and capric acid (C10). Along with caproic acid, they account for 15% of the fat in goat's milk. Caproic acid is a fatty acid found naturally in various animal fats and oils. While generally more abundant in animals, caproic acid is found in all organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals. Caproic acid is one of the chemicals that gives the decomposing fleshy seed coat of the ginkgo fruit its characteristic unpleasant odor. It is also one of the components of vanilla and cheese. Industrially, the primary use of caproic acid is in the manufacture of its esters for use as artificial flavors and in the manufacture of hexyl derivatives, such as hexylphenols. Caproic acid has been associated with medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism. As a relatively volatile organic compound, caproic acid has been identified as a fecal biomarker of Clostridium difficile infection (PMID: 30986230).
Palmitoleic acid, or (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid (16:1n-7) with the formula CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. Present in all tissues, it is generally found in higher concentrations in the liver. Macadamia oil (Macadamia integrifolia) and sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides) are botanical sources of palmitoleic acid, containing 22 and 40% respectively. Palmitoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Piperine, also known as fema 2909, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkaloids and derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus. Piperine is a pepper tasting compound. Piperine is found in the highest concentration within pepper (Piper nigrum) and many other Piper species. Piperine has also been detected, but not quantified, in dills and herbs and spices.  Piperine is responsible for the hot taste of pepper. Piperine has been used in trials studying the treatment of Multiple Myeloma and Deglutition Disorders. It is used to impart pungent taste to brandy.
Pelargonic acid, or nonanoic acid, is a fatty acid which occurs naturally as esters is the oil of pelargonium. Synthetic esters, such as methyl nonanoate, are used as flavorings. Pelargonic acid is an organic compound composed of a nine-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid. It is an oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, but well soluble in chloroform and ether. The derivative 4-nonanoylmorpholine is an ingredient in some pepper sprays.
Heptanoic acid, or C7:0 also known as enanthic acid or heptylic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA) are fatty acids with aliphatic tails of 6 to 12 carbons, which can form medium-chain triglycerides Heptanoic acid is an oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. Its name derives from the Latin oenanthe which is in turn derived from the Ancient Greek oinos "wine" and anthos "blossom." Heptanoic acid is used in the preparation of esters, such as ethyl enanthate, which are used in fragrances and as artificial flavors.  The triglyceride ester of heptanoic acid is the triheptanoin, which is used in certain medical conditions as a nutritional supplement.
Phenyl acetate (or phenylacetate) is a carboxylic acid ester that has been found in the biofluids of patients with nephritis and/or hepatitis as well as patients with phenylketonuria (PKU), an inborn error of metabolism. Phenyl acetate has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Excess phenylalanine in the body can be disposed of through a transamination process leading to the production of phenylpyruvate. The phenylpyruvate can be further metabolized into a number of products. Decarboxylation of phenylpyruvate gives phenylacetate, while a reduction reaction gives phenyllactate. The phenylacetate can be further conjugated with glutamine to give phenylacetyl glutamine. All of these metabolites can be detected in serum and urine of PKU patients. Phenyl acetate is also produced endogenously as the metabolite of 2-Phenylethylamine, which is mainly metabolized by monoamine oxidase to form phenyl acetate. 2-phenylethylamine is an "endogenous amphetamine" which may modulate central adrenergic functions, and the urinary phenyl acetate levels have been postulated as a marker for depression. (PMID: 17978765 , 476920 , 6857245). Phenylacetate is also found in essential oils, e.g. neroli, rose oil, free and as esters' and in many fruits. As a result it is used as a perfumery and flavoring ingredient. Phenyl acetate is a microbial metabolite.
gamma-Glutamyltyrosine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and tyrosine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamyltyrosine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
gamma-Glutamylphenylalanine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and phenylalanine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It is probably formed by transpeptidation between glutathione and the corresponding amino acid, catalyzed by gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (PMID: 237763). gamma-Glutamylphenylalanine belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylphenylalanine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. It can be detected in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria, which is a human genetic disorder due to the lack of phenylalanine hydroxylase to metabolize phenylalanine to tyrosine (Wikipedia). gamma-Glutamylphenylalanine is found in adzuki bean, onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), and soybean.
MG(0:0/18:2(9Z,12Z)/0:0) is a monoacylglyceride. A monoglyceride, more correctly known as a monoacylglycerol, is a glyceride consisting of one fatty acid chain covalently bonded to a glycerol molecule through an ester linkage. Monoacylglycerol can be broadly divided into two groups; 1-monoacylglycerols (or 3-monoacylglycerols) and 2-monoacylglycerols, depending on the position of the ester bond on the glycerol moiety. Normally the 1-/3-isomers are not distinguished from each other and are termed 'alpha-monoacylglycerols', while the 2-isomers are beta-monoacylglycerols. Monoacylglycerols are formed biochemically via release of a fatty acid from diacylglycerol by diacylglycerol lipase or hormone sensitive lipase. Monoacylglycerols are broken down by monoacylglycerol lipase. They tend to be minor components only of most plant and animal tissues, and indeed would not be expected to accumulate because their strong detergent properties would have a disruptive effect on membranes. 2-Monoacylglycerols are a major end product of the intestinal digestion of dietary fats in animals via the enzyme pancreatic lipase. They are taken up directly by the intestinal cells and converted to triacylglycerols via the monoacylglycerol pathway before being transported in lymph to the liver. Mono- and Diglycerides are commonly added to commercial food products in small quantities. They act as emulsifiers, helping to mix ingredients such as oil and water that would not otherwise blend well.
1-Methyladenosine, also known as M1A, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Precise m6A mapping by m6A-CLIP/IP (briefly m6A-CLIP) revealed that a majority of m6A locates in the last exon of mRNAs in multiple tissues/cultured cells of mouse and human, and the m6A enrichment around stop codons is a coincidence that many stop codons locate round the start of last exons where m6A is truly enriched. The methylation of adenosine is directed by a large m6A methyltransferase complex containing METTL3 as the SAM-binding sub-unit. Insulin-like growth factor-2 mRNA-binding proteins 1, 2, and 3 (IGF2BP1-3) are reported as a novel class of m6A readers.
10Z-Nonadecenoic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid that has a C19 chain as a backbone and a cis double bond at the C10 position. It is a member of the class of compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. Long-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. 10Z-Nonadecenoic acid is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 10Z-Nonadecenoic acid can be found in blood and feces. Within the cell, 10Z-nonadecenoic acid is primarily located in the membrane (predicted from logP). It can also be found in the extracellular space.
Kynurenine is a metabolite of the amino acid tryptophan used in the production of niacin. L-Kynurenine is a central compound of the tryptophan metabolism pathway since it can change into the neuroprotective agent kynurenic acid or to the neurotoxic agent quinolinic acid. The break-up of these endogenous compounds' balance can be observable in many disorders such as stroke, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. It can also occur in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's, and Alzheimer's disease; and in mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression.
gamma-Glutamylthreonine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and threonine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylthreonine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Pantothenic acid, also called vitamin B5, is a water-soluble vitamin required to sustain life. Pantothenic acid is needed to form coenzyme-A (CoA), and is thus critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its name is derived from the Greek pantothen meaning "from everywhere" and small quantities of pantothenic acid are found in nearly every food, with high amounts in whole grain cereals, legumes, eggs, meat, and royal jelly. Pantothenic acid is classified as a member of the secondary alcohols. Secondary alcohols are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl). Pantothenic acid is considered to be soluble (in water) and acidic.
L-Octanoylcarnitine is the physiologically active form of octanoylcarnitine (PMID: 11274033). Octanoylcarnitine is detected in medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency. MCAD is characterized by an intolerance to prolonged fasting, recurrent episodes of hypoglycemic coma with medium-chain dicarboxylic aciduria, impaired ketogenesis, and low plasma and tissue carnitine levels (OMIM: 201450). L-Octanoylcarnitine is also found to be associated with celiac disease and glutaric aciduria II, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
Glycerophosphorylcholine (GPC) is a choline derivative and one of the two major forms of choline storage (along with phosphocholine) in the cytosol. Glycerophosphorylcholine is also one of the four major organic osmolytes in renal medullary cells, changing their intracellular osmolyte concentration in parallel with extracellular tonicity during cellular osmoadaptation. As an osmolyte, Glycerophosphorylcholine counteracts the effects of urea on enzymes and other macromolecules. Kidneys (especially medullar cells), which are exposed under normal physiological conditions to widely fluctuating extracellular solute concentrations, respond to hypertonic stress by accumulating the organic osmolytes glycerophosphorylcholine (GPC), betaine, myo-inositol, sorbitol and free amino acids. Increased intracellular contents of these osmolytes are achieved by a combination of increased uptake (myo-inositol and betaine) and synthesis (sorbitol, GPC), decreased degradation (GPC) and reduced osmolyte release. GPC is formed in the breakdown of phosphatidylcholine (PtC). This pathway is active in many body tissues, including mammary tissue.
Paraxanthine, also known as p-xanthine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Paraxanthine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Within humans, paraxanthine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, paraxanthine and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is catalyzed by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In addition, paraxanthine and acetyl-CoA can be converted into 5-acetylamino-6-formylamino-3-methyluracil through its interaction with the enzyme arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2. In humans, paraxanthine is involved in caffeine metabolism.
Biliverdin is a green pigment formed as a byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown. It consists of four linearly connected pyrrole rings (a tetrapyrrole). Biliverdin is formed when the heme group in hemoglobin is cleaved at its alpha-methene bridge. The resulting biliverdin is then reduced to bilirubin, a yellow pigment, by the enzyme biliverdin reductase. The changing color of a bruise from deep purple to yellow over time is a graphical indicator of this reaction. Biliverdin occurs in the bile of amphibia and of birds, but not in normal human bile or serum.
Maltotetraose belongs to the class of organic compounds known as oligosaccharides. These are carbohydrates made up of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units linked to each other through glycosidic bonds. Maltotetraose exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, maltotetraose has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as welsh onions, kales, small-leaf lindens, other bread, and romaine lettuces. Maltotetraose is a normal human oligo saccharide present in plasma, but is elevated in cases of Pompe disease (PMID 15886040).
Indolelactic acid (CAS: 1821-52-9) is a tryptophan metabolite found in human plasma, serum, and urine. Tryptophan is metabolized by two major pathways in humans, either through kynurenine or via a series of indoles, and some of its metabolites are known to be biologically active. Indolelactic acid is present in various amounts, significantly higher in umbilical fetal plasma than in maternal plasma in the protein-bound form (PMID 2361979, 1400722, 3597614, 11060358, 1400722). Indolelactic acid is also a microbial metabolite; urinary indole-3-lactate is produced by Clostridium sporogenes (PMID: 29168502).
gamma-Glutamylleucine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and leucine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylleucine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. gamma-Glutamylleucine is a biomarker for the consumption of whey protein. It is found in urine (PMID: 3782411).
3-Carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid (CMPF) is also called 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropanoic acid and 2-(2-carboxyethyl)-4-methyl-4-propylfuran-3-carboxylic acid. CMPF is significantly accumulated in the serum of chronic kidney disease patients and is considered to be a potent uremic toxin (PMID: 8734460) and identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). There are several minor derivatives of CMPF that have been detected in serum and urine including 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-pentyl-2-furanpropionic acid, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-ethyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and 3-carboxy-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid. CMPF was first detected in human urine in 1979 (PMID: 12388676) and it is believed to be formed from the consumption of fish, vegetables, and fruits (PMID: 19083276 ; PMID: 12388676). CMPF is a strong inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration and is associated with thyroid dysfunction (PMID: 19083276). CMPF also directly inhibits renal secretion of various drugs and endogenous organic acids by competitively inhibiting OAT3 transporters (PMID: 11967025). It is also thought to contribute to various neurological abnormalities because it inhibits the transport of organic acids at the blood-brain barrier (PMID: 12388676). 
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
Hydrocinnamic acid, also known as 3-phenylpropanoic acid or dihydrocinnamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanoic acids. Phenylpropanoic acids are compounds with a structure containing a benzene ring conjugated to a propanoic acid (C6-C3). Phenylpropanoic acid can be prepared from cinnamic acid by hydrogenation. Hydrocinnamic acid is a sweet, balsamic, and cinnamon tasting compound. This compound is used frequently in cosmetic products such as perfumes, bath gels, detergent powders, liquid detergents, fabric softeners, and soaps as it gives off a floral scent. A characteristic reaction of phenylpropanoic acid is its cyclization to indanones. Phenylpropanoic acid is used in the food industry to preserve and maintain the original aroma quality of frozen foods. Phenylpropanoic acid is also added to food for technological purposes in a wide variety including manufacturing, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage, and food additives. This compound is used as a sweetener as well to sweeten food and can be found in tabletop sweeteners.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
cis-Aconitic acid is an intermediate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle produced by the dehydration of citric acid. The enzyme aconitase (aconitate hydratase; EC 4.2.1.3) catalyses the stereo-specific isomerization of citrate to isocitrate via cis-aconitate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
gamma-Glutamylmethionine is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and methionine, and is a proteolytic breakdown product of larger proteins. It belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. gamma-Glutamylmethionine is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. gamma-Glutamylmethionine is found in onion-family vegetables. It is isolated from the seeds of onion (Allium cepa), kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), mung bean (Vigna radiata), garlic (Allium sativum), and black gram (Vigna mungo).
Threonylphenylalanine is a dipeptide composed of threonine and phenylalanine. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Dipeptides are organic compounds containing a sequence of exactly two alpha-amino acids joined by a peptide bond. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signalling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Sebacic acid is a saturated, straight-chain naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid with 10 carbon atoms. Sebacic acid is a normal urinary acid. In patients with multiple acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD), also known as glutaric aciduria type II (GAII), a group of metabolic disorders due to deficiency of either electron transfer flavoprotein or electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase, biochemical data shows an increase in urine sebacic acid excretion. Sebacic acid is found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency and medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Sebacic acid is a white flake or powdered crystal slightly soluble in water that has been proposed as an alternative energy substrate in total parenteral nutrition. Sebacic Acid was named from the Latin sebaceus (tallow candle) or sebum (tallow) in reference to its use in the manufacture of candles. Sebacic acid and its derivatives such as azelaic acid have a variety of industrial uses as plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc. It is used in the synthesis of polyamide and alkyd resins. It is also used as an intermediate for aromatics, antiseptics and painting materials (PMID: 10556649, 1738216, 8442769, 12706375).
Lactic acid is an organic acid. It is a chiral molecule, consisting of two optical isomers, L-lactic acid and D-lactic acid, with the L-isomer being the most common in living organisms. Lactic acid plays a role in several biochemical processes and is produced in the muscles during intense activity. D-Lactic acid is the end product of the enzyme glyoxalase II (or hydroxyacyl-glutathione hydrolase) (EC 3.1.2.6), which converts the intermediate substrate S-lactoyl-glutathione to reduced glutathione and D-lactate (OMIM: 138790). Lactic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Aerococcus, Bacillus, Carnobacterium, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Pediococcus, Rhizopus, Saccharomyces, Streptococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus and Weissella (PMID:26287368; PMID:26360870).
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
Hydroxyoctanoic acid medium chain substrate of the 2-hydroxy acid oxidases associated with the 3 distinct human 2-hydroxy acid oxidase genes, HAOX1, HAOX2, and HAOX3. (PMID: 10777549).
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Myristic acid, also known as tetradecanoic acid or C14:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristic acid (its ester is called myristate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 14 carbons; as such, it is a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as an oily white crystalline solid.  Myristic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals, and is found in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat, as well as coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils.  Industrially, myristic acid is used to synthesize a variety of flavour compounds and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics (Dorland, 28th ed). Within eukaryotic cells, myristic acid is also commonly conjugated to a penultimate N-terminal glycine residue in receptor-associated kinases to confer membrane localization of these enzymes (a post-translational modification called myristoylation via the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase). Myristic acid has a high enough hydrophobicity to allow the myristoylated protein to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells.  Also, this fatty acid is known because it accumulates as fat in the body; however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health (see, for example, PMID: 15936650).  Myristic acid is named after the scientific name for nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
4-Pyridoxic acid is a member of the class of compounds known as methylpyridines. More specifically it is a 2-methylpyridine derivative substituted by a hydroxy group at C-3, a carboxy group at C-4, and a hydroxymethyl group at C-5. 4-Pyridoxic acid is the catabolic product of vitamin B6 (also known as pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyradoxamine) and is excreted in the urine. Urinary levels of 4-pyridoxic acid are lower in females than in males and will be reduced even further in persons with a riboflavin deficiency. 4-Pyridoxic acid is formed by the action of aldehyde oxidase I (an endogenous enzyme) and by microbial enzymes (pyridoxal 4-dehydrogenase), an NAD-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase. 4-pyridoxic acid can be further broken down by the gut microflora via the enzyme known as 4-pyridoxic acid dehydrogenase. This enzyme catalyzes the four-electron oxidation of 4-pyridoxic acid to 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridine-4,5-dicarboxylate, using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as a cofactor.
5Z-Dodecenoic acid, also known as 5-dodecenoic acid or 5-dodecenoate, is a monounsaturated fatty acid that has a C12 chain as a backbone and a cis double bond at the C5 position. 5-Dodecenoic acid is a member of the class of compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. Medium-chain fatty acids are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Thus, 5-dodecenoic acid is considered to be a fatty acid lipid molecule. 5-Dodecenoic acid is practically insoluble (in water) and a weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Within the cell, 5-dodecenoic acid is primarily located in the cytoplasm and in the membrane (predicted from logP). It can also be found in the extracellular space. An increase of 5-dodecenoic acid in plasma is associated with acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency disorders (PMID: 7586519). 5-Dodecenoic acid is an intermediate of unsaturated fatty acid oxidation.
D-alpha-Aminobutyric acid (AABA), also known as alpha-aminobutyrate, (R)-2-aminobutanoic acid or D-homoalanine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as D-alpha-amino acids. These are alpha amino acids which have the D-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. D-alpha-aminobutyric acid is an optically active form of alpha-aminobutyric acid having D-configuration. It is an enantiomer of a L-alpha-aminobutyric acid and a non-proteinogenic amino acid. Alpha-aminobutyric acid is one of the three isomers of aminobutyric acid. The two others are the neurotransmitter Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) and Beta-Aminobutyric acid (BABA) which is known for inducing plant disease resistance. Optically active organic compounds found in meteorites typically exist in racemic form, yet life on Earth has almost exclusively selected for L- over D-enantiomers of amino acids. D-enantiomers of non-proteinogenic amino acids are known to inhibit aerobic microorganisms. D-alpha-aminobutyric acid has been shown to inhibit microbial iron reduction by a number of Geobacter strains including Geobacter bemidjiensis, Geobacter metallireducens and Geopsychrobacter electrodiphilus (PMID: 25695622). D-alpha-Aminobutyric acid is a known substrate of D-amino acid oxidase (PMID: 6127341).
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Ursodeoxycholic acid, also known as ursodeoxycholate or acid deoxyursocholic, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dihydroxy bile acids, alcohols and derivatives. Dihydroxy bile acids, alcohols and derivatives are compounds containing or derived from a bile acid or alcohol, and which bears exactly two carboxylic acid groups. Ursodeoxycholic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Taurocholic acid is a bile acid and is the product of the conjugation of cholic acid with taurine. Its sodium salt is the chief ingredient of the bile of carnivorous animals. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine, and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH, and consequently require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Taurocholic acid, as with all bile acids, acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as a cholagogue and choleretic (a bile purging agent). Hydrolysis of taurocholic acid yields taurine, a nonessential amino acid. Taurocholic acid is one of the main components of urinary nonsulfated bile acids in biliary atresia. Raised levels of taurocholate in fetal serum in obstetric cholestasis may result in the development of a fetal dysrhythmia and sudden intra-uterine death (PMID: 3944741, 11256973).
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
L-pipecolic acid is a normal human metabolite present in human blood, where is present as the primary enantiomer of pipecolic acid. L-pipecolic acid is a cyclic imino acid (contains both imino (>C=NH) and carboxyl (-C(=O)-OH) functional groups) produced during the degradation of lysine, accumulates in body fluids of infants with generalized genetic peroxisomal disorders, including Zellweger syndrome (OMIM 214100), neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (OMIM 202370), and infantile Refsum disease (OMIM 266510). L-pipecolic acid levels are also elevated in patients with chronic liver diseases. L-pipecolic acid is the substrate of delta1-piperideine-2-carboxylate reductase (EC 1.5.1.21) in the pathway of lysine degradation (PMID: 2717271, 8305590, 1050990).
Ketoleucine is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids. Ketoleucine is both a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of ketoleucine are associated with maple syrup urine disease (MSUD). MSUD is a metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC), leading to a buildup of the branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) and their toxic by-products (ketoacids) in the blood and urine. The symptoms of MSUD often show in infancy and lead to severe brain damage if untreated. MSUD may also present later depending on the severity of the disease. If left untreated in older individuals, during times of metabolic crisis, symptoms of the condition include uncharacteristically inappropriate, extreme, or erratic behaviour and moods, hallucinations, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, lethargy, oscillating hypertonia and hypotonia, ataxia, seizures, hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, opisthotonus, pancreatitis, rapid neurological decline, and coma.  In maple syrup urine disease, the brain concentration of branched-chain ketoacids can increase 10- to 20-fold. This leads to a depletion of glutamate and a consequent reduction in the concentration of brain glutamine, aspartate, alanine, and other amino acids. The result is a compromise of energy metabolism because of a failure of the malate-aspartate shuttle and a diminished rate of protein synthesis (PMID: 15930465).
2-Hydroxy-3-methylbutyric acid (also known as 2-hydroxyisovaleric acid) is a metabolite found in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 7978272), methylmalonic acidemia, propionic acidemia, 3-ketothiolase deficiency, isovaleric acidemia, 3-methylcrotonylglycemia, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaric acidemia, multiple carboxylase deficiency, glutaric aciduria, ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency, glyceroluria, tyrosinemia type I, galactosemia, and maple syrup urine disease (PMID: 11048741). 2-Hydroxyisovaleric acid has also been identified in the urine of patients with lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis (PMID: 884872), and in the urine of severely asphyxiated babies (PMID: 1610944). 2-Hydroxyisovaleric acid originates mainly from ketogenesis and from the metabolism of valine, leucine, and isoleucine (PMID: 6434570). 2-Hydroxy-3-methylbutyric acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212).
Eicosadienoic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid found in human milk (PMID: 15256803). Omega-6 fatty acids are a family of unsaturated fatty acids which have in common a carbon-carbon double bond in the n−6 position; that is, the sixth bond from the end of the fatty acid. The biological effects of the omega−6 fatty acids are largely mediated by their conversion to n-6 eicosanoids that bind to diverse receptors found in every tissue of the body. Eicosadienoic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212).
Chenodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Usually conjugated with either glycine or taurine. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for intestinal absorption and is reabsorbed by the small intestine. It is used as cholagogue, a choleretic laxative, and to prevent or dissolve gallstones.
Maltotriose is a trisaccharide (three-part sugar) consisting of three glucose molecules linked with α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. It is most commonly produced by the digestive enzyme alpha-amylase (a common enzyme in human saliva) on amylose in starch. The creation of both maltotriose and maltose during this process is due to the random manner in which alpha amylase hydrolyses α-1,4 glycosidic bonds. It is the shortest chain oligosaccharide that can be classified as maltodextrin. Maltotriose belongs to the class of organic compounds known as oligosaccharides. These are carbohydrates made up of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units linked to each other through glycosidic bonds. Maltotriose is a common oligosaccharide metabolite found in human urine after maltose ingestion or infusion (PMID:6645121). Maltotriose is increased in glycogen storage disease II (OMIM: 232300) due to a mutation of the enzyme alpha-1,4-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20) (PMID:4286143).
Citramalic acid, also known as 2-Methylmalic acid, is an analog of malic acid. The structure of citramalic acid is similar to the structure of malic acid except it has an extra CH3 group on position 2. It is also classified as a 2-hydroxydicarboxylic acid. Citramalic acid exists in two isomers, L-citramalic acid and D-citramalic acid.  The L-isomer is more biologically relevant isomer. Citramalic acid is found in almost all living organisms from microbes to plants to humans although citramalate is primarily produced from bacteria. L-citramalic acid was first isolated from the peel of apples in 1954 (PMID: 13160011). It has also been isolated in wine and other ripening fruit (PMID: 13807713). Citramalic acid can inhibit the production of malic acid. Citramalic acid is also an important microbial metabolite and has been found to be a byproduct of Saccharomyces yeast species, as well as Propionibacterium acnes and Aspergillus niger (PMID: 31827810) (http://drweyrich.weyrich.com/labs/oat.html) (PMID: 7628083). Citramalic acid is a component of the C5-branched dibasic acid metabolism pathway. It can be broken down by the enzyme citramalate lyase, which converts citramalate to acetate and pyruvate. Citramalate synthase is an enzyme found in bacteria that synthesizes citramalic acid from acetyl-CoA, pyruvate and water. Citramalic acid may have a useful role in medical diagnoses. It has been found in the urine of two brothers with autistic features (PMID: 7628083). Citramalic acid can also be used as a urinary marker for gut dysbiosis (PMID: 31669633). Dysbiosis is a disorder of the bacterial flora of the human digestive tract. It is usually diagnosed clinically by direct detection of an abnormal pattern of the intestinal microbiota.
Raffinose is a complex carbohydrate. It is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. It can be found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables, and whole grains. Raffinose is hydrolyzed to D-galactose and sucrose by D-galactosidase (D-GAL). D-GAL also hydrolyzes other D-galactosides such as stachyose, verbascose, and galactinol [1-O-(D-galactosyl)-myoinositol], if present. The enzyme does not cleave linked galactose, as in lactose. Raffinose is also known as melitose and may be thought of as galactose and sucrose connected via an alpha(1->6) glycosidic linkage. Thus, raffinose can be broken down into galactose and sucrose via the enzyme alpha-galactosidase. Human intestines do not contain this enzyme. Raffinose is a trisaccharide occurring in Australian manna (from Eucalyptus spp, Myrtaceae) and in cottonseed meal.
MG(0:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)/0:0), also known as 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), is a unique molecular species of monoacylglycerol isolated in 1995 from rat brain and canine gut as an endogenous ligand for the cannabinoid receptors. 2-AG is rapidly formed from arachidonic acid-containing phospholipids through increased phospholipid metabolism, such as enhanced inositol phospholipid turnover, in various tissues and cells upon stimulation. 2-AG binds to the cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 and exhibits a variety of cannabimimetic activities in vitro and in vivo. 2-AG is an endogenous cannabinoid (endocannabinoid). Endocannabinoids are a class of fatty acid derivatives defined by their ability to interact with the specific cannabinoid receptors that were originally identified as the targets of delta9-tetrahydocannabinol (delta9-THC), the psychoactive component of cannabis. Endocannabinoids have been implicated in a growing number of important physiological and behavioral events. Endocannabinoids are amides, esters, and ethers of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, which act as new lipidic mediators. 2-AG is one of the main endogenous agonists of cannabinoid receptors, able to mimic several pharmacological effects of delta9-THC, the active principle of Cannabis sativa preparations like hashish and marijuana. The activity of AEA and 2-AG at their receptors is limited by cellular uptake through an anandamide membrane transporter (AMT), followed by intracellular degradation. A fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is the main AEA hydrolase, whereas a monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is critical in degrading 2-AG (PMID: 16515464, 16278487, 16678907).
Hydroxyphenyllactic acid or 4-hydroxyphenyllactate (the L-form) is a tyrosine metabolite. The level of L-hydroxyphenyllactic acid is elevated in patients with a deficiency of the enzyme p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate oxidase (EC 1.14.2.2) (PMID: 4720815). L-hydroxyphenyllactate is present in relatively higher concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid and urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PKU) and tyrosinemia (PMID: 3126358). However, the D-form of hydroxyphenyllactate is of bacterial origin and is also found in individuals with bacterial overgrowth or unusual gut microflora (PMID: 3126358).  Microbial hydroxyphenyllactate is likely derived from phenolic or polyphenolic compounds in the diet.  Bifidobacteria and lactobacilli produce considerable amounts of phenyllactic and p-hydroxyphenyllactic acids (PMID: 23061754).  It has also been shown that hydroxyphenyllactate decreases ROS (reactive oxygen species) production in both mitochondria and neutrophils and so hydroxyphenyllactate may function as a natural anti-oxidant (PMID: 23061754). Hydroxyphenyllactic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Acinetobacter, Bacteroides, Bifidobacteria, Bifidobacterium, Clostridium, Enterococcus, Escherichia, Eubacterium, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus (PMID: 19961416).
10Z-Heptadecenoic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid with an unsaturated double bond at the 10th carbon. Heptadecanoic acid, or margaric acid, is a saturated fatty acid. Its molecular formula is CH3(CH2)15COOH. It occurs as a trace component of the fat and milkfat of ruminants, but it does not occur in any natural animal or vegetable fat at concentrations over half a percent. Salts and esters of heptadecanoic acid are called heptadecanoates.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
Dihomo-alpha-linolenic acid, also known as 11,14,17-eicosatrienoic acid, is a rare polyunsaturated fatty acid of the omega-3 series. In normal humans, it represents less than 0.25% of serum phospholipid fatty acids. However, it is one of the most active essential fatty acids when assayed for the inhibition of fatty acid elongation/desaturation reactions which convert dietary C-18 fatty acids to C-20 eicosanoid precursors. (http://www.caymanchem.com)
N2-gamma-Glutamylglutamine, also known as gamma-L-Glu-L-Gln or L-gamma-glutamyl-L-glutamine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dipeptides. These are organic compounds containing a sequence of exactly two alpha-amino acids joined by a peptide bond. N2-gamma-Glutamylglutamine is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). N2-gamma-Glutamylglutamine is a dipeptide obtained from the condensation of the gamma-carboxy group of glutamic acid with the alpha-amino group of glutamine. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signalling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Chenodeoxycholic acid glycine conjugate is an acyl glycine and a bile acid-glycine conugate. It is a secondary bile acid produced by the action of enzymes existing in the microbial flora of the colonic environment. In hepatocytes, both primary and secondary bile acids undergo amino acid conjugation at the C-24 carboxylic acid on the side chain, and almost all bile acids in the bile duct therefore exist in a glycine conjugated form (PMID: 16949895). This compound usually exists as the sodium salt and acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is a cholagogue and choleretic.
Butyrylcarnitine, also known as (3R)-3-(butyryloxy)-4-(trimethylammonio)butanoate or L-carnitine butyryl ester, is classified as a member of the acylcarnitines. Acylcarnitines are organic compounds containing a fatty acid with the carboxylic acid attached to carnitine through an ester bond. Butyrylcarnitine is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic. Butyrylcarnitine is elevated in patients with short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SCAD) deficiency, in infants with acute acidosis and generalized muscle weakness, and in middle-aged patients with chronic myopathy localized in muscle (OMIM: 201470).
7-Hydroxyoctanoic acid is a normal metabolite of medium-chain fatty acid oxidation, and is excreted in the urine as 7-hydroxyoctanoyl-beta-D-glucuronide (PMID 8799296), and have been found slightly elevated in the urine of persons with abnormal fatty acid metabolism (PMID 2094705).
Urea is a highly soluble organic compound formed in the liver from ammonia produced by the deamination of amino acids. It is the principal end product of protein catabolism and constitutes about one half of the total urinary solids. Urea is formed in a cyclic pathway known simply as the urea cycle. In this cycle, amino groups donated by ammonia and L-aspartate are converted to urea. Urea is essentially a waste product; it has no physiological function. It is dissolved in blood (in humans in a concentration of 2.5 - 7.5 mmol/liter) and excreted by the kidney in the urine. In addition, a small amount of urea is excreted (along with sodium chloride and water) in human sweat. Urea is found to be associated with primary hypomagnesemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Taurodeoxycholic acid is a bile salt formed in the liver by conjugation of deoxycholate with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID:11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Taurodeoxycholic acid can be found in Escherichia (PMID:30736766).
4-Hydroxyproline (hydroxyproline or Hyp) is a major component of the protein collagen. Hydroxyproline is produced by hydroxylation of the amino acid proline and is, therefore, a post-translationally modified, non-essential amino acid. Hydroxyproline and proline play key roles in collagen stability. In particular, they permit the sharp twisting of the collagen helix. Hydroxyproline is found in few proteins other than collagen. The only other mammalian protein which includes hydroxyproline is elastin. For this reason, hydroxyproline content has been used as an indicator to determine collagen and/or gelatin amount in tissue or biological samples. Increased serum and urine levels of hydroxyproline have been found in Paget's disease (PMID: 436278). Hydroxyproline (Hyp) content in biological fluids is used as a parameter of collagen catabolism, especially bone resorption or tissue degradation. Bedridden and elderly individuals show significantly elevated serum levels of hydroxyproline in comparison to normal, active individuals (PMID: 10706420). Elevated levels of urinary hydroxyproline are also indicative of muscle damage (PMID: 21988268). Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also known to accelerate collagen degradation. Hydroxyproline levels increase in cases of depression and stress (PMID: 21483218). 4-Hydroxyproline is found to be associated with Alzheimer's disease, and also hydroxyprolinemia and iminoglycinuria which are both inborn errors of metabolism. 4-Hydroxyproline is also involved in metabolic disorders such as hyperprolinemia type I, hyperornithinemia with gyrate atrophy (HOGA), L-arginine:glycine amidinotransferase deficiency, creatine deficiency, and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency. A deficiency in ascorbic acid can result in impaired hydroxyproline formation (PubChem). trans-4-Hydroxy-L-proline is a biomarker for the consumption of processed meat.
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Undecanoic acid, also known as N-undecylic acid or N-undecanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Undecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Undecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Docosapentaenoic acid (22n-3) (also known as clupanodonic acid) is an essential omega-3 fatty acid (EFA) which is prevalent in fish oils. Docosapentaenoic acid, commonly called DPA, is an intermediary between eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 ω-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 ω-3). Seal oil is a rich source of this metabolite. There are three functions of docosapentaenoic acid. Most importantly, it is a component of phospholipids found in all animal cell membranes, and a deficiency of docosapentaenoic acid leads to faulty membranes being formed. Secondly, it is involved in the transport and oxidation of cholesterol, and clupanodonic acid tends to lower plasma cholesterol. A third function is as a precursor of prostanoids which are only formed from docosapentaenoic acid. Deficiency of this in experimental animals causes lesions mainly attributable to faulty cellular membranes. Outcomes include sudden failure of growth, lesions of the skin, kidney, and connective tissue, erythrocyte fragility, impaired fertility, and the uncoupling of oxidation and phosphorylation. In humans, pure deficiency of docosapentaenoic acid has been studied particularly in persons fed intravenously. A relative deficiency (that is, a low ratio in the body of docosapentaenoic to long-chain saturated fatty acids and isomers of docosapentaenoate) is common in Western diets and plays an important part in the causation of atherosclerosis, coronary thrombosis, multiple sclerosis, the triopathy of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and certain forms of malignant disease. Various factors affect the dietary requirement of docosapentaenoic acid (PMID: 6469703).
1, 5-Anhydrosorbitol or 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-AG) is a validated marker of short-term glycemic control. This substance is derived mainly from food, is well absorbed in the intestine, and is distributed to all organs and tissues. It is metabolically stable, being excreted in the urine when its level exceeds the renal threshold. It is reabsorbed in the renal tubules and is competitively inhibited by glucosuria, which leads to a reduction in its level in serum. The correlation between this reduction and the amount of glucose present in urine is so close that 1,5 AG can be used as a sensitive, day-to-day, real-time marker of glycemic control. It provides useful information on current glycemic control and is superior to both hemoglobin A1C and fructosamine in detecting near-normoglycemia. 1,5-AG in human plasma has been proposed for several years as a short-term, retrospective marker of glycemic control and seems to be the most suitable parameter for monitoring glucose excursions. The decrease in serum 1,5-AG is very sensitive to urinary glucose excretion. It is a metabolically inert polyol that competes with glucose for reabsorption in the kidneys. Otherwise stable levels of 1,5-AG are rapidly depleted as blood glucose levels exceed the renal threshold for glucosuria. 1,5-AG is also more tightly associated with glucose fluctuations and postprandial glucose (PMID:18088226, 12166605, 7783360, 8940824).
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Hyodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Salicyluric acid is an aryl glycine conjugate formed by the body to eliminate excess salicylates, including aspirin. Aspirin is rapidly hydrolysed to salicylic acid which is further metabolized to various compounds, including salicyluric acid (SU) as well as various acyl and phenolic glucuronides, and hydroxylated metabolites. SU is the major metabolite of SA excreted in urine and it is present in the urine of people who have not taken salicylate drugs, although it has no anti-inflammatory effects in humans or in animals. More salicyluric acid (SU) is excreted in the urine of vegetarians than in non-vegetarians, primarily because fruits and vegetables are important sources of dietary salicylates. However, significantly less (10-15X) SU is excreted by vegetarians than individuals taking low-dose aspirin (PMID: 12944546). The induction of the salicyluric acid formation is one of the saturable pathways of salicylate elimination. The formation of the methyl ester of salicyluric acid is observed during the quantitation of salicyluric acid and other salicylate metabolites in urine by high-pressure liquid chromatography. This methyl ester formation causes artificially low values for salicyluric acid and high values for salicylic acid. (PMID: 6101164, 6857178). Salicyluric acid has been found to be a microbial metabolite.
Xanthine, also known as 2,6-dioxopurine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Xanthine is also classified as an oxopurine. An oxopurine in which the purine ring is substituted by oxo groups at positions 2 and 6 and N-9 is protonated. Xanthine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants, several stimulants can be derived from xanthine, including caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine. Derivatives of xanthine (known collectively as xanthines) are a group of alkaloids commonly used for their effects as mild stimulants and as bronchodilators, notably in the treatment of asthma or influenza symptoms. Within humans, xanthine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthine can be biosynthesized from guanine; which is mediated by the enzyme guanine deaminase. In addition, xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate can be biosynthesized from xanthosine through the action of the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. In humans and other primates, xanthine can be converted to uric acid by the action of the xanthine oxidase enzyme. People with rare genetic disorders, specifically xanthinuria and Lesch‚ÄìNyhan syndrome, lack sufficient xanthine oxidase and cannot convert xanthine to uric acid. Individuals with xanthinuria have unusually high concentrations of xanthine in their blood and urine, which can lead to health problems such as renal failure and xanthine kidney stones. Individuals with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome have a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT). The HGPRT deficiency causes a build-up of uric acid in all body fluids. This results in both high levels of uric acid in the blood and urine, associated with severe gout and kidney problems. Neurological signs include poor muscle control and moderate intellectual disability.
Taurochenodesoxycholic acid is a bile acid formed in the liver by conjugation of chenodeoxycholate with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Taurochenodesoxycholic acid has been found to be a microbial metabolite.
Capric acid, also known as decanoic acid is a C10 saturated fatty acid. It is a member of the series of fatty acids found in oils and animal fats. The names of caproic, caprylic, and capric acids are all derived from the word caper (Latin for goat). These fatty acids are light yellowish transparent oily liquids with a sweaty, unpleasant aroma that is reminiscent of goats. Capric acid is used in the manufacture of esters for artificial fruit flavors and perfumes. It is also used as an intermediate in chemical syntheses. Capric acid is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes, lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals. Capric acid occurs naturally in coconut oil (about 10%) and palm kernel oil (about 4%), otherwise it is uncommon in typical seed oils. It is found in the milk of various mammals and to a lesser extent in other animal fats. Capric acid, caproic acid (a C6:0 fatty acid) and caprylic acid (a C8:0 fatty acid) account for about 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat (PMID 16747831). Capric acid may be responsible for the mitochondrial proliferation associated with the ketogenic diet, which may occur via PPARgamma receptor agonism and the targeting of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PMIDL 24383952).
Pseudouridine, also known as psi-uridine or 5-ribosyluracil, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. These are analogues of nucleosides and nucleotides, such as phosphonated nucleosides, C-glycosylated nucleoside bases, analogues where the sugar unit is a pyranose, and carbocyclic nucleosides.  Pseudouridine specifically has its uracil attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond to the ribofuranose.  It is the most prevalent of the over one hundred different modified nucleosides found in RNA (PMID: 17113994).  Pseudouridine is a solid that is soluble in water.  Pseudouridine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans, and is in all classes of RNA except mRNA.  It is formed by enzymes called pseudouridine synthases, which post-transcriptionally isomerize specific uridine residues in RNA.
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
gamma-Glutamylvaline is a dipeptide composed of gamma-glutamate and valine. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis. gamma-Glutamylvaline belongs to the family of N-acyl-alpha amino acids and derivatives. These are compounds containing an alpha amino acid which bears an acyl group at its terminal nitrogen atom. It is found in urine (PMID: 3782411).
Saccharin, ammonium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States). Saccharin belongs to the family of aromatic homomonocyclic compounds. These are aromatic compounds containing only one ring, which is homocyclic.
N2-Acetylornithine, also known as N(alpha)-acetylornithine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as N-acyl-L-alpha-amino acids. These are N-acylated alpha-amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. N-Acetylornithine is a minor component of the deproteinized blood plasma of human blood. Human blood plasma contains a variable amount of acetylornithine, averaging 1.1 +/- 0.4 umol/L (range 0.8-0.2 umol/L). Urine contains a very small amount of acetylornithine, approximately 1 nmol/mg creatinine (1 umol/day) (PMID:508804).
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
Choline is a basic constituent of lecithin that is found in many plants and animal organs. It is important as a precursor of acetylcholine, as a methyl donor in various metabolic processes, and in lipid metabolism. Choline is now considered to be an essential vitamin. While humans can synthesize small amounts (by converting phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine), it must be consumed in the diet to maintain health. Required levels are between 425 mg/day (female) and 550 mg/day (male). Milk, eggs, liver, and peanuts are especially rich in choline. Most choline is found in phospholipids, namely phosphatidylcholine or lecithin. Choline can be oxidized to form betaine, which is a methyl source for many reactions (i.e. conversion of homocysteine into methionine). Lack of sufficient amounts of choline in the diet can lead to a fatty liver condition and general liver damage. This arises from the lack of VLDL, which is necessary to transport fats away from the liver. Choline deficiency also leads to elevated serum levels of alanine amino transferase and is associated with increased incidence of liver cancer.
Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon straight-chain fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. It is found naturally in coconuts and breast milk. It is an oily liquid with a slightly unpleasant rancid taste that is minimally soluble in water. Caprylic acid is used commercially in the production of esters used in perfumery and also in the manufacture of dyes (Wikipedia). Caprylic acid can be found in numerous foods such as Prunus (Cherry, Plum), pineapple sages, black raspberries, and shallots. Caprylic acid is found to be associated with medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Hippuric acid is an acyl glycine formed from the conjugation of benzoic acid with glycine. Acyl glycines are produced through the action of glycine N-acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.13) which is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: acyl-CoA + glycine < -- > CoA + N-acylglycine. Hippuric acid is a normal component of urine and is typically increased with increased consumption of phenolic compounds (tea, wine, fruit juices). These phenols are converted into benzoic acid which is then converted into hippuric acid and excreted in the urine. Hippuric acid is the most frequently used biomarker in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to toluene. This product of solvent biotransformation may be also found in the urine of individuals who have not been exposed to the solvent. A smaller fraction of the absorbed toluene is oxidized into aromatic compounds including ortho-cresol, which is not found in the urine of nonexposed individuals in a significant amount. The concentration of hippuric acid in the urine of individuals exposed to a low toluene concentration does not differ from that of individuals not exposed to the solvent. This has led to the conclusion that hippuric acid should not be utilized in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to low levels of toluene in the air. Protein-bound organic acids such as hippuric acid are markedly accumulated in uremic plasma and produce defective protein binding of drugs (PMID: 9120876 , 8734460). Hippuric acid has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Hippuric acid is also found to be associated with phenylketonuria, propionic acidemia, and tyrosinemia I, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Hippuric acid is an endogenous phenolic acid metabolite detected after the consumption of whole grain.
Myristoleic acid, also known as 9-tetradecenoate or myristoleate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristoleic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Myristoleic acid exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Outside of the human body, myristoleic acid is found in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as milk (cow), butter, and margarine-like spreads, and in a lower concentration in creams, meat bouillons, and chocolates. Myristoleic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as anchovies, loganberries, sunflowers, yellow zucchinis, and dates. This could make myristoleic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Myristoleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid that represents approximately 0.3-0.7% of the total fatty acid composition of adipose tissue triacylglycerol in humans (PMID: 10393134). It has been suggested that its effective cytotoxic (i.e. cell death inducer) activity could be used for the treatment of prostate cancer (PMID: 11304730).
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Undecylenic acid, also known as 10-undecylenate or omega-undecenoic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Undecylenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Undecylenic acid is found in black elderberry. Undecylenic acid is a flavouring ingredient and is a sweet and woody-tasting compound. Undecylenic acid was identified as one of forty plasma metabolites that could be used to predict gut microbiome Shannon diversity (PMID:31477923). Shannon diversity is a metric that summarizes both species abundance and evenness, and it has been suggested as a marker for microbiome health. Undecylenic acid is used in the production of the bioplastic Nylon-11, in the treatment of fungal infections in the skin, and as a precursor in the manufacture of a wide assortment of pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, perfumes, and personal hygiene products.
Glycylvaline is a dipeptide composed of glycine and valine. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signalling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Stearidonic acid is found in dietary plant oils which are metabolized to longer-chain, more unsaturated (n-3) PUFA. These oils appear to possess hypotriglyceridemic properties typically associated with fish oils.(PMID: 15173404). Stearidonic acid may be used as a precursor to increase the EPA content of human lipids and that combinations of gamma-linolenic acid and stearidonic acid eicosapentaenoic acid can be used to manipulate the fatty acid compositions of lipid pools in subtle ways. Such effects may offer new strategies for manipulation of cell composition in order to influence cellular responses and functions in desirable ways. (PMID: 15120716).
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Trans-zeatin riboside, also known as (E)-N-(4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl)adenosine or 9-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-trans-zeatin, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Trans-zeatin riboside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Trans-zeatin riboside can be found in a number of food items such as winter squash, plains prickly pear, dill, and common buckwheat, which makes trans-zeatin riboside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glycosylamines. Glycosylamines are compounds consisting of an amine with a beta-N-glycosidic bond to a carbohydrate, thus forming a cyclic hemiaminal ether bond (alpha-amino ether). Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside is a strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside is produced when isopentenyladenine and UDP-D-glucose react, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferases.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Sequestrant, preservative and discolouration inhibitor for foods. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA, is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Riboprine, also known as isopentenyladenosine or ipa, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Riboprine is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Riboprine can be found in a number of food items such as peppermint, chinese mustard, custard apple, and green bean, which makes riboprine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Sequestrant, preservative and discolouration inhibitor for foods. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA, is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent
Sequestrant, preservative and discolouration inhibitor for foods. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA, is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Sinapine (CAS: 18696-26-9), also known as sinapoylcholine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Sinapine is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Sinapine has been detected, but not quantified, in garden cress and horseradish. Sinapine is found in brassicas. It is a storage protein isolated from the seeds of Brassica napus (rape). This could make sinapine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Sorbitol is a polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications. Ascorbic acid fermentation; in solution form for moisture-conditioning of cosmetic creams and lotions, toothpaste, tobacco, gelatin; bodying agent for paper, textiles, and liquid pharmaceuticals; softener for candy; sugar crystallization inhibitor; surfactants; urethane resins and rigid foams; plasticizer, stabilizer for vinyl resins; food additive (sweetener, humectant, emulsifier, thickener, anticaking agent); dietary supplement. (Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary) Biological Source: Occurs widely in plants ranging from algae to the higher orders. Fruits of the plant family Rosaceae, which include apples, pears, cherries, apricots, contain appreciable amounts. Rich sources are the fruits of the Sorbus and Crataegus species Use/Importance: Used for manufacturing of sorbose, propylene glycol, ascorbic acid, resins, plasticizers and as antifreeze mixtures with glycerol or glycol. Tablet diluent, sweetening agent and humectant, other food uses. Sorbitol is used in photometric determination of Ru(VI) and Ru(VIII); in acid-base titration of borate (Dictionary of Organic Compounds).
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Zeatin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. Zeatin is a cytokinin (plant growth hormone) derived from the purine adenine, which occurs in the form of a cis- and a trans-isomer and conjugates. Zeatin was first discovered in immature corn kernels from the genus Zea. Zeatin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as figs, rowanberries, red raspberries, garlic, and tree ferns. Zeatin has also been shown to promote the resistance of tobacco against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae, in which trans-zeatin has a more prominent effect than cis-zeatin. Zeatin has several anti-ageing effects on human skin fibroblasts. It promotes the growth of lateral buds and, when sprayed on meristems, stimulates cell division to produce bushier plants. Zeatin and its derivatives occur in many plant extracts and are the active ingredient in coconut milk, which causes plant growth.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
2-Methoxybenzoic acid is a flavouring agent 2-Methoxybenzoic acid, o-anisic acid, or ortho-methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is an ortho carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline solid
Salsolinol is an endogenous catechol isoquinoline detected in humans. Salsolinol was detected in urine of parkinsonian patients administered with L-DOPA. This finding stimulated the studies on Salsolinol derivatives in the brain, and gave new aspects of the endogenous alkaloids, which had been considered to occur only in plants. In normal non-alcoholic subjects and alcoholics, Salsolinol and O-methylated Salsolinol were found in urine, cerebrospinal fluid and brains. Salsolinol has an asymmetric center at first position and exists as (R)- and (S)enantiomer. The (R)enantiomer of Salsolinol is predominant in urine from healthy volunteers. Only the (R)enantiomers of Salsolinol and N-methylated Salsolinol occur in the human brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and intraventricular fluid (IVF), and the (S)enantiomers were not detected. (R)salsolinol synthase catalyzes the enantio-selective synthesis of (R)Salsolinol and 1-carboxyl(R)Salsolinol from dopamine with acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. The N-methylation of (R)salsolinol into N-methylsalsolinol (NMSal) is catalyzed by two N-methyltransferases with different optimum pH, at pH 7.0 and 8.4. NM(R)Salsolinol is enzymatically oxidized into 1,2-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxyisoquinolinium ion (DMDHIQ+) by an oxidase sensitive to semicarbaside and also non-enzymatically by autoxidation. NM(R)Salsolinol and its precursor, dopamine, were found to occur selectively in the nigro-striatum, whereas (R)Salsolinol distributes uniformly among the brain regions. (PMID 14697894).
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Harman is found in chicory. Harman is an alkaloid from the may pop (Passiflora incarnata, Passifloraceae) and many other Passiflora sp
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
Sinapine (CAS: 18696-26-9), also known as sinapoylcholine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Sinapine is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Sinapine has been detected, but not quantified, in garden cress and horseradish. Sinapine is found in brassicas. It is a storage protein isolated from the seeds of Brassica napus (rape). This could make sinapine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Amentoflavone is found in fruits. Amentoflavone is obtained from Viburnum prunifolium (black haw
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Amentoflavone is found in fruits. Amentoflavone is obtained from Viburnum prunifolium (black haw
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
PE(16:0/18:2(9Z,12Z)) is a phosphatidylethanolamine (PE or GPEtn). It is a glycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylethanolamine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. As is the case with diacylglycerols, glycerophosphoethanolamines can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 and C-2 positions. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. PE(16:0/18:2(9Z,12Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of palmitic acid at the C-1 position and one chain of linoleic acid at the C-2 position. The palmitic acid moiety is derived from fish oils, milk fats, vegetable oils and animal fats, while the linoleic acid moiety is derived from seed oils. Phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and signaling.While most phospholipids have a saturated fatty acid on C-1 and an unsaturated fatty acid on C-2 of the glycerol backbone, the fatty acid distribution at the C-1 and C-2 positions of glycerol within phospholipids is continually in flux, owing to phospholipid degradation and the continuous phospholipid remodeling that occurs while these molecules are in membranes. PEs are neutral zwitterions at physiological pH. They mostly have palmitic or stearic acid on carbon 1 and a long chain unsaturated fatty acid (e.g. 18:2, 20:4 and 22:6) on carbon 2. PE synthesis can occur via two pathways. The first requires that ethanolamine be activated by phosphorylation and then coupled to CDP. The ethanolamine is then transferred from CDP-ethanolamine to phosphatidic acid to yield PE. The second involves the decarboxylation of PS.
Salsolinol is an endogenous catechol isoquinoline detected in humans. Salsolinol was detected in urine of parkinsonian patients administered with L-DOPA. This finding stimulated the studies on Salsolinol derivatives in the brain, and gave new aspects of the endogenous alkaloids, which had been considered to occur only in plants. In normal non-alcoholic subjects and alcoholics, Salsolinol and O-methylated Salsolinol were found in urine, cerebrospinal fluid and brains. Salsolinol has an asymmetric center at first position and exists as (R)- and (S)enantiomer. The (R)enantiomer of Salsolinol is predominant in urine from healthy volunteers. Only the (R)enantiomers of Salsolinol and N-methylated Salsolinol occur in the human brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and intraventricular fluid (IVF), and the (S)enantiomers were not detected. (R)salsolinol synthase catalyzes the enantio-selective synthesis of (R)Salsolinol and 1-carboxyl(R)Salsolinol from dopamine with acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. The N-methylation of (R)salsolinol into N-methylsalsolinol (NMSal) is catalyzed by two N-methyltransferases with different optimum pH, at pH 7.0 and 8.4. NM(R)Salsolinol is enzymatically oxidized into 1,2-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxyisoquinolinium ion (DMDHIQ+) by an oxidase sensitive to semicarbaside and also non-enzymatically by autoxidation. NM(R)Salsolinol and its precursor, dopamine, were found to occur selectively in the nigro-striatum, whereas (R)Salsolinol distributes uniformly among the brain regions. (PMID 14697894).
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(S)-Laudanosine is found in opium poppy. (S)-Laudanosine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
Mannitol, or hexan-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol (C6H8(OH)6), is an alcohol and a sugar (sugar alcohol), or a polyol, it is a stereoisomer of sorbitol and is similar to the C5 xylitol. The structure of mannitol is made of a straight chain of six carbon atoms, each of which is substituted with a hydroxyl group. Mannitol is one of the most abundant energy and carbon storage molecules in nature, it is produced by a wide range of organisms such as bacteria, fungi and plants (PMID: 19578847). In medicine, mannitol is used as a diuretic and renal diagnostic aid. Mannitol has little significant energy value as it is largely eliminated from the body before any metabolism can take place. It can be used to treat oliguria associated with kidney failure or other manifestations of inadequate renal function and has been used for determination of glomerular filtration rate. Mannitol is also commonly used as a research tool in cell biological studies, usually to control osmolarity. Mannitol has a tendency to lose a hydrogen ion in aqueous solutions, which causes the solution to become acidic. For this, it is not uncommon to add a weak base, such as sodium bicarbonate, to the solution to adjust its pH. Mannitol is a non-permeating molecule i.e., it cannot cross biological membranes. Mannitol is an osmotic diuretic agent and a weak renal vasodilator. Mannitol is found to be associated with cytochrome c oxidase deficiency and ribose-5-phosphate isomerase deficiency, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Mannitol is also a microbial metabolite found in Aspergillus, Candida, Clostridium, Gluconobacter, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Pseudomonas, Rhodobacteraceae, Saccharomyces, Streptococcus, Torulaspora and Zymomonas (PMID: 15240312; PMID: 29480337).
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Harman is found in chicory. Harman is an alkaloid from the may pop (Passiflora incarnata, Passifloraceae) and many other Passiflora sp
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid is a methoxycinnamic acid with three methoxy substituents at the 3-, 4- and 5-positions. It has a role as an allergen. It is a conjugate acid of a 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate. 3, 4, 5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid is an organic acid found in normal human urine (PMID:6992730, 6511847). Trimethoxycinnamate is a natural aromatic ester from Piper longum that inhibits expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (TNF- -induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-Selectin and vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1)), without being toxic to endothelial cells. (PMID:16313198).
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
Riboprine, also known as isopentenyladenosine or ipa, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Riboprine is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Riboprine can be found in a number of food items such as peppermint, chinese mustard, custard apple, and green bean, which makes riboprine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Indole-3-carboxylic acid, also known as 3-carboxyindole or 3-indolecarboxylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. Naphthylmethylindoles: Any compound containing a 1H-indol-3-yl-(1-naphthyl)methane structure with substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by an alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, 1-(N-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl, or 2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl group whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent. One example given is JWH-250. Outside of the human body, indole-3-carboxylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as brassicas, broccoli, pulses, common beets, and barley. This could make indole-3-carboxylic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Notice the pentyl group substituted onto the nitrogen atom of the indole ring. Note that this definition encompasses only those compounds that have OH groups attached to both the phenyl and the cyclohexyl rings, and so does not include compounds such as O-1871 which lacks the cyclohexyl OH group, or compounds such as JWH-337 or JWH-344 which lack the phenolic OH group.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Sphinganine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1,2-aminoalcohols. These are organic compounds containing an alkyl chain with an amine group bound to the C1 atom and an alcohol group bound to the C2 atom. Thus, sphinganine is considered to be a sphingoid base lipid molecule. Sphinganine is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Sphinganine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Within humans, sphinganine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, sphinganine can be converted into 3-dehydrosphinganine through its interaction with the enzyme 3-ketodihydrosphingosine reductase. In addition, sphinganine can be converted into sphinganine 1-phosphate; which is catalyzed by the enzyme sphingosine kinase 2. Outside of the human body, sphinganine has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as Mexican oregano, jostaberries, winter squash, angelica, and epazotes. This could make sphinganine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Sphinganine blocks postlysosomal cholesterol transport by inhibiting low-density lipoprotein-induced esterification of cholesterol and causing unesterified cholesterol to accumulate in perinuclear vesicles. It has been suggested that endogenous sphinganine may inhibit cholesterol transport in Niemann-Pick Type C (NPC) disease (PMID: 1817037).
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Harman is found in chicory. Harman is an alkaloid from the may pop (Passiflora incarnata, Passifloraceae) and many other Passiflora sp
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
(S)-Laudanosine is found in opium poppy. (S)-Laudanosine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Salsolinol is an endogenous catechol isoquinoline detected in humans. Salsolinol was detected in urine of parkinsonian patients administered with L-DOPA. This finding stimulated the studies on Salsolinol derivatives in the brain, and gave new aspects of the endogenous alkaloids, which had been considered to occur only in plants. In normal non-alcoholic subjects and alcoholics, Salsolinol and O-methylated Salsolinol were found in urine, cerebrospinal fluid and brains. Salsolinol has an asymmetric center at first position and exists as (R)- and (S)enantiomer. The (R)enantiomer of Salsolinol is predominant in urine from healthy volunteers. Only the (R)enantiomers of Salsolinol and N-methylated Salsolinol occur in the human brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and intraventricular fluid (IVF), and the (S)enantiomers were not detected. (R)salsolinol synthase catalyzes the enantio-selective synthesis of (R)Salsolinol and 1-carboxyl(R)Salsolinol from dopamine with acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. The N-methylation of (R)salsolinol into N-methylsalsolinol (NMSal) is catalyzed by two N-methyltransferases with different optimum pH, at pH 7.0 and 8.4. NM(R)Salsolinol is enzymatically oxidized into 1,2-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxyisoquinolinium ion (DMDHIQ+) by an oxidase sensitive to semicarbaside and also non-enzymatically by autoxidation. NM(R)Salsolinol and its precursor, dopamine, were found to occur selectively in the nigro-striatum, whereas (R)Salsolinol distributes uniformly among the brain regions. (PMID 14697894).
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Trehalose, also known as mycose, is a 1-alpha (disaccharide) sugar found extensively but not abundantly in nature. It is thought to be implicated in anhydrobiosis - the ability of plants and animals to withstand prolonged periods of desiccation. The sugar is thought to form a gel phase as cells dehydrate, which prevents disruption of internal cell organelles by effectively splinting them in position. Rehydration then allows normal cellular activity to be resumed without the major, generally lethal damage that would normally follow a dehydration/reyhdration cycle. Trehalose is a non-reducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1-1 alpha bond giving it the name of alpha-D-glucopyranoglucopyranosyl-1,1-alpha-D-glucopyranoside. The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore stable in solution at high temperatures even under acidic conditions. The bonding also keeps non-reducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end-groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). The enzyme trehalase, present but not abundant in most people, breaks it into two glucose molecules, which can then be readily absorbed in the gut. Trehalose is an important components of insects circulating fluid. It acts as a storage form of insect circulating fluid and it is important in respiration. Trehalose has also been found to be a metabolite of Burkholderia, Escherichia and Propionibacterium (PMID:12105274; PMID:25479689) (krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/84382/1/88571%20P-1257.pdf).
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Indole-3-carboxylic acid, also known as 3-carboxyindole or 3-indolecarboxylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. Naphthylmethylindoles: Any compound containing a 1H-indol-3-yl-(1-naphthyl)methane structure with substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by an alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, 1-(N-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl, or 2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl group whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent. One example given is JWH-250. Outside of the human body, indole-3-carboxylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as brassicas, broccoli, pulses, common beets, and barley. This could make indole-3-carboxylic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Notice the pentyl group substituted onto the nitrogen atom of the indole ring. Note that this definition encompasses only those compounds that have OH groups attached to both the phenyl and the cyclohexyl rings, and so does not include compounds such as O-1871 which lacks the cyclohexyl OH group, or compounds such as JWH-337 or JWH-344 which lack the phenolic OH group.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Rhamnose (Rham) is a naturally occurring deoxy sugar. It can be classified as either a methyl-pentose or a 6-deoxy-hexose. Rhamnose occurs in nature in its L-form as L-rhamnose (6-deoxy-L-mannose). This is unusual, since most of the naturally occurring sugars are in D-form. Rhamnose is commonly bound to other sugars in nature. It is a common glycone component of glycosides from many plants. Rhamnose is also a component of the outer cell membrane of certain bacteria. L-rhamnose is metabolized to L-Lactaldehyde, which is a branching point in the metabolic pathway of L-fucose and L-rhamnose utilization. It exists in two anomeric forms, alpha-L-rhamnose and beta-L-rhamnose. Rhamnose has been found in Klebsiella, Pseudomonas (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00369505) (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ejlt.200300816).
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Amentoflavone is found in fruits. Amentoflavone is obtained from Viburnum prunifolium (black haw
3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid is a methoxycinnamic acid with three methoxy substituents at the 3-, 4- and 5-positions. It has a role as an allergen. It is a conjugate acid of a 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate. 3, 4, 5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid is an organic acid found in normal human urine (PMID:6992730, 6511847). Trimethoxycinnamate is a natural aromatic ester from Piper longum that inhibits expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (TNF- -induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-Selectin and vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1)), without being toxic to endothelial cells. (PMID:16313198).
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
(S)-Laudanosine is found in opium poppy. (S)-Laudanosine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Sinapine (CAS: 18696-26-9), also known as sinapoylcholine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Sinapine is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Sinapine has been detected, but not quantified, in garden cress and horseradish. Sinapine is found in brassicas. It is a storage protein isolated from the seeds of Brassica napus (rape). This could make sinapine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
(S)-Laudanosine is found in opium poppy. (S)-Laudanosine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Harman is found in chicory. Harman is an alkaloid from the may pop (Passiflora incarnata, Passifloraceae) and many other Passiflora sp
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
cis-Zeatin-9-N-glucoside is an intermediate in cytokinins 9-N-glucoside biosynthesis. It is generated from cis-zeatin via the enzyme UDP glycosyltransferase. Glucosylation of cytokinins is a well-recognized modification that is thought to play an important role in hormonal homeostasis. Several types of cytokinins conjugation exist which render cytokinins inactive: O-xylosylation, O-glucosylation, and N-glucosylation.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Kinetin can react with UDP-D-glucose to produce kinetin-7-N-glucoside or kinetin-9-N-glucoside, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferase. Kinetin is a hormone derived from plants.
Amentoflavone is found in fruits. Amentoflavone is obtained from Viburnum prunifolium (black haw
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Salsolinol is an endogenous catechol isoquinoline detected in humans. Salsolinol was detected in urine of parkinsonian patients administered with L-DOPA. This finding stimulated the studies on Salsolinol derivatives in the brain, and gave new aspects of the endogenous alkaloids, which had been considered to occur only in plants. In normal non-alcoholic subjects and alcoholics, Salsolinol and O-methylated Salsolinol were found in urine, cerebrospinal fluid and brains. Salsolinol has an asymmetric center at first position and exists as (R)- and (S)enantiomer. The (R)enantiomer of Salsolinol is predominant in urine from healthy volunteers. Only the (R)enantiomers of Salsolinol and N-methylated Salsolinol occur in the human brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and intraventricular fluid (IVF), and the (S)enantiomers were not detected. (R)salsolinol synthase catalyzes the enantio-selective synthesis of (R)Salsolinol and 1-carboxyl(R)Salsolinol from dopamine with acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. The N-methylation of (R)salsolinol into N-methylsalsolinol (NMSal) is catalyzed by two N-methyltransferases with different optimum pH, at pH 7.0 and 8.4. NM(R)Salsolinol is enzymatically oxidized into 1,2-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxyisoquinolinium ion (DMDHIQ+) by an oxidase sensitive to semicarbaside and also non-enzymatically by autoxidation. NM(R)Salsolinol and its precursor, dopamine, were found to occur selectively in the nigro-striatum, whereas (R)Salsolinol distributes uniformly among the brain regions. (PMID 14697894).
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
2-Methoxybenzoic acid is a flavouring agent 2-Methoxybenzoic acid, o-anisic acid, or ortho-methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is an ortho carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline solid
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Salsolinol is an endogenous catechol isoquinoline detected in humans. Salsolinol was detected in urine of parkinsonian patients administered with L-DOPA. This finding stimulated the studies on Salsolinol derivatives in the brain, and gave new aspects of the endogenous alkaloids, which had been considered to occur only in plants. In normal non-alcoholic subjects and alcoholics, Salsolinol and O-methylated Salsolinol were found in urine, cerebrospinal fluid and brains. Salsolinol has an asymmetric center at first position and exists as (R)- and (S)enantiomer. The (R)enantiomer of Salsolinol is predominant in urine from healthy volunteers. Only the (R)enantiomers of Salsolinol and N-methylated Salsolinol occur in the human brain, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and intraventricular fluid (IVF), and the (S)enantiomers were not detected. (R)salsolinol synthase catalyzes the enantio-selective synthesis of (R)Salsolinol and 1-carboxyl(R)Salsolinol from dopamine with acetaldehyde or pyruvic acid. The N-methylation of (R)salsolinol into N-methylsalsolinol (NMSal) is catalyzed by two N-methyltransferases with different optimum pH, at pH 7.0 and 8.4. NM(R)Salsolinol is enzymatically oxidized into 1,2-dimethyl-6,7-dihydroxyisoquinolinium ion (DMDHIQ+) by an oxidase sensitive to semicarbaside and also non-enzymatically by autoxidation. NM(R)Salsolinol and its precursor, dopamine, were found to occur selectively in the nigro-striatum, whereas (R)Salsolinol distributes uniformly among the brain regions. (PMID 14697894).
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
(S)-Laudanosine is found in opium poppy. (S)-Laudanosine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Zeatin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 6-alkylaminopurines. 6-Alkylaminopurines are compounds that contain an alkylamine group attached at the 6-position of a purine. Purine is a bicyclic aromatic compound made up of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring. Zeatin is a cytokinin (plant growth hormone) derived from the purine adenine, which occurs in the form of a cis- and a trans-isomer and conjugates. Zeatin was first discovered in immature corn kernels from the genus Zea. Zeatin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as figs, rowanberries, red raspberries, garlic, and tree ferns. Zeatin has also been shown to promote the resistance of tobacco against the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae, in which trans-zeatin has a more prominent effect than cis-zeatin. Zeatin has several anti-ageing effects on human skin fibroblasts. It promotes the growth of lateral buds and, when sprayed on meristems, stimulates cell division to produce bushier plants. Zeatin and its derivatives occur in many plant extracts and are the active ingredient in coconut milk, which causes plant growth.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Glucobrassicin is found in brassicas. Glucobrassicin is a constituent of Brassica and Raphanus species, e.g. rape (Brassica napus var. napus) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera)
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Indole-3-carboxylic acid, also known as 3-carboxyindole or 3-indolecarboxylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. Naphthylmethylindoles: Any compound containing a 1H-indol-3-yl-(1-naphthyl)methane structure with substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by an alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, 1-(N-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl, or 2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl group whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent. One example given is JWH-250. Outside of the human body, indole-3-carboxylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as brassicas, broccoli, pulses, common beets, and barley. This could make indole-3-carboxylic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Notice the pentyl group substituted onto the nitrogen atom of the indole ring. Note that this definition encompasses only those compounds that have OH groups attached to both the phenyl and the cyclohexyl rings, and so does not include compounds such as O-1871 which lacks the cyclohexyl OH group, or compounds such as JWH-337 or JWH-344 which lack the phenolic OH group.
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid is a methoxycinnamic acid with three methoxy substituents at the 3-, 4- and 5-positions. It has a role as an allergen. It is a conjugate acid of a 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate. 3, 4, 5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid is an organic acid found in normal human urine (PMID:6992730, 6511847). Trimethoxycinnamate is a natural aromatic ester from Piper longum that inhibits expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (TNF- -induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-Selectin and vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1)), without being toxic to endothelial cells. (PMID:16313198).
Glucoiberin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoiberin is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Glucoiberin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as capers, cauliflowers, cabbages, Brassicas, and Chinese cabbages. This could make glucoiberin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoiberin is isolated from the seeds of Brassica oleracea and other crucifers.
Glucoalyssin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoalyssin is soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoalyssin can be found in chinese cabbage and turnip, which makes glucoalyssin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid is a methoxycinnamic acid with three methoxy substituents at the 3-, 4- and 5-positions. It has a role as an allergen. It is a conjugate acid of a 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate. 3, 4, 5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid is an organic acid found in normal human urine (PMID:6992730, 6511847). Trimethoxycinnamate is a natural aromatic ester from Piper longum that inhibits expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (TNF- -induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-Selectin and vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1)), without being toxic to endothelial cells. (PMID:16313198).
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
2-Methoxybenzoic acid is a flavouring agent 2-Methoxybenzoic acid, o-anisic acid, or ortho-methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is an ortho carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline solid
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Trans-zeatin riboside, also known as (E)-N-(4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl)adenosine or 9-beta-D-ribofuranosyl-trans-zeatin, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Trans-zeatin riboside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Trans-zeatin riboside can be found in a number of food items such as winter squash, plains prickly pear, dill, and common buckwheat, which makes trans-zeatin riboside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Bergapten, also known as O-methylbergaptol or heraclin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 5-methoxypsoralens. These are psoralens containing a methoxy group attached at the C5 position of the psoralen group. Bergapten is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as anises, figs, and parsnips and in a lower concentration in carrots, fennels, and celery stalks. Bergapten has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as coconuts, pepper (c. frutescens), corianders, sesbania flowers, and cardamoms. This could make bergapten a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is also found in rose hip, sweet marjoram, greenthread tea, and tartary buckwheat. Bergapten is a potentially toxic compound. Bergapten is a major constituent of bergamot oil (Citrus bergamia). Present in celery, especially the outer leaves, and other common grocery vegetables. Implicated in photodermatitis among grocery workers. Bergapten was under investigation in clinical trial NCT00533195 "Comparison of UVA1 Phototherapy Versus Photochemotherapy for Patients With Severe Generalized Atopic Dermatitis".
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Sphingosine, also known as (4E)-sphingenine or sphing-4-enine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1,2-aminoalcohols. These are organic compounds containing an alkyl chain with an amine group bound to the C1 atom and an alcohol group bound to the C2 atom. Sphingosine is an 18-carbon amino alcohol with an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain, which forms a primary part of sphingolipids. Sphingolipids are a class of cell membrane lipids that include sphingomyelin. Thus, sphingosine is considered to be a sphingoid base lipid. Sphingosine is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Sphingosine is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to humans.  Sphingosine is synthesized from palmitoyl CoA and serine in a condensation required to yield dehydrosphingosine. Dehydrosphingosine is then reduced by NADPH to dihydrosphingosine (sphinganine), and finally oxidized by FAD to sphingosine. Within humans and other mammals, sphingosine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, sphingosine can be converted into sphingosine 1-phosphate through its interaction with the enzyme sphingosine kinase 2. sphingosine 1-phosphate is an important signaling molecule. In addition, sphingosine can be biosynthesized from sphingosine 1-phosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme sphingosine-1-phosphate phosphatase 2. Sphingosine and its derivative sphinganine are the major bases of the sphingolipids in mammals. In humans, sphingosine is involved in globoid cell leukodystrophy.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glycosylamines. Glycosylamines are compounds consisting of an amine with a beta-N-glycosidic bond to a carbohydrate, thus forming a cyclic hemiaminal ether bond (alpha-amino ether). Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside is a strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Isopentenyladenine-9-N-glucoside is produced when isopentenyladenine and UDP-D-glucose react, with UDP as a byproduct. The reaction is catalyzed by UDP glycosyltransferases.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
3, 4, 5-trimethoxycinnamic acid is a methoxycinnamic acid with three methoxy substituents at the 3-, 4- and 5-positions. It has a role as an allergen. It is a conjugate acid of a 3,4,5-trimethoxycinnamate. 3, 4, 5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid is an organic acid found in normal human urine (PMID:6992730, 6511847). Trimethoxycinnamate is a natural aromatic ester from Piper longum that inhibits expression of cell adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (TNF- -induced expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and E-Selectin and vascular adhesion molecules-1 (VCAM-1)), without being toxic to endothelial cells. (PMID:16313198).
Beta-Lactose is the beta-pyranose form of the compound lactose [CCD].
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Sequestrant, preservative and discolouration inhibitor for foods. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, widely abbreviated as EDTA, is a polyamino carboxylic acid and a colourless, water-soluble solid. Its conjugate base is named ethylenediaminetetraacetate. It is widely used to dissolve limescale. Its usefulness arises because of its role as a hexadentate ("six-toothed") ligand and chelating agent
8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate can be found in a number of food items such as opium poppy, chinese chives, agave, and sparkleberry, which makes 8-methylsulfinyloctyl glucosinolate a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
2-Methoxybenzoic acid is a flavouring agent 2-Methoxybenzoic acid, o-anisic acid, or ortho-methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is an ortho carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline solid
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
2-Methoxybenzoic acid is a flavouring agent 2-Methoxybenzoic acid, o-anisic acid, or ortho-methoxybenzoic acid is an organic compound which is an ortho carboxylic acid. It is a crystalline solid
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Glucoraphanin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoraphanin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as radish, common cabbages, Brassicas, Chinese cabbages, and cabbages. This could make glucoraphanin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
(±)-erythro-Isoleucine is a flavouring ingredient, dietary supplement, and a nutrient. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) are essential amino acids whose carbon structure is marked by a branch point. These three amino acids are critical to human life and are particularly involved in stress, energy and muscle metabolism. BCAA supplementation as therapy, both oral and intravenous, in human health and disease holds great promise. BCAA denotes valine, isoleucine, and leucine which are branched chain essential amino acids. Despite their structural similarities, the branched amino acids have different metabolic routes, with valine going solely to carbohydrates, leucine solely to fats, and isoleucine to both. The different metabolism accounts for different requirements for these essential amino acids in humans: 12 mg/kg, 14 mg/kg, and 16 mg/kg of valine, leucine, and isoleucine respectively. Furthermore, these amino acids have different deficiency symptoms. Valine deficiency is marked by neurological defects in the brain, while isoleucine deficiency is marked by muscle tremors. BCAA are decreased in patients with liver disease such as hepatitis, hepatic coma, cirrhosis, extrahepatic biliary atresia, or portacaval shunt. Aromatic amino acids (AAA)-tyrosine, tryptophan, and phenylalanine (as well as methionine) are increased in these conditions. Valine, in particular, has been established as a useful supplemental therapy to the ailing liver. All the BCAA probably compete with AAA for absorption into the brain. Supplemental BCAA with vitamin B6 and zinc help normalize the BCAA:AAA ratio. The BCAA are not without side effects. Leucine alone, for example, exacerbates pellagra and can cause psychosis in pellagra patients by increasing excretion of niacin in the urine. Leucine may lower brain serotonin and dopamine. The ratio of leucine to other BCAA is greatest in pork, where leucine is 7 to 8 g and the other BCAA together are only 3 to 4 g (http://www.dcnutrition.com).
DL-Glutamate, also known as E or DL-glutamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as glutamic acid and derivatives. Glutamic acid and derivatives are compounds containing glutamic acid or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of glutamic acid at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. These are amino acids in which the amino group is attached to the carbon atom immediately adjacent to the carboxylate group (alpha carbon). DL-Glutamate exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. DL-Glutamate is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as red bell peppers, milk (cow), and wheats and in a lower concentration in eggplants, romaine lettuces, and nanking cherries. DL-Glutamate has also been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as apples, broccoli, and lettuces.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Rotenone is found in jicama. Rotenone is widely distributed in the Leguminosae (Papilionoideae) e.g. Pachyrrhizus erosus (yam bean).Rotenone is an odorless chemical that is used as a broad-spectrum insecticide, piscicide, and pesticide. It occurs naturally in the roots and stems of several plants such as the jicama vine plant. In mammals, including humans, it is linked to the development of Parkinson's disease.
Indole-3-carboxylic acid, also known as 3-carboxyindole or 3-indolecarboxylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. Naphthylmethylindoles: Any compound containing a 1H-indol-3-yl-(1-naphthyl)methane structure with substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by an alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, 1-(N-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl, or 2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl group whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent. One example given is JWH-250. Outside of the human body, indole-3-carboxylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as brassicas, broccoli, pulses, common beets, and barley. This could make indole-3-carboxylic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Notice the pentyl group substituted onto the nitrogen atom of the indole ring. Note that this definition encompasses only those compounds that have OH groups attached to both the phenyl and the cyclohexyl rings, and so does not include compounds such as O-1871 which lacks the cyclohexyl OH group, or compounds such as JWH-337 or JWH-344 which lack the phenolic OH group.
Delphinidin 3-rutinoside is found in banana. Tulipanin is an anthocyanin. It is the 3-rutinoside of delphinidin. It can be found in Alstroemeria species, Berberis species, Cissus sicyoides, Hymenocallis species, Manihot utilissima, Meliosma tenuis, Musa acuminata, Ophiopogon japonicus, Petunia exserta, Petunia reitzii, blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), Schismatoglottis concinna, Secale cereale, Slanum betacea, Thaumatococcus daniellii, Tulipa species.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
(±)-Tryptophan is a dietary supplement, nutrient.Tryptophan is one of the 20 standard amino acids, as well as an essential amino acid in the human diet. Only the L-stereoisomer of tryptophan is used in structural or enzyme proteins, but the D-stereoisomer is occasionally found in naturally produced peptides (for example, the marine venom peptide contryphan). (Wikipedia
Indoleacetyl glutamine is indolic derivative of tryptophan. It is generated from indoleacetic acid. Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. Indoleacetyl glutamine frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with hartnup disease, the characteristic symptoms of the disease are mental retardation and pellagra like skin rash.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Glucoerucin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. These are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Outside of the human body, glucoerucin has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as cabbages and Brassicas. This could make glucoerucin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Glucoerucin is isolated from the seeds of salad rocket (Eruca sativa) and Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera).
Indole-3-carboxylic acid, also known as 3-carboxyindole or 3-indolecarboxylate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives. Indolecarboxylic acids and derivatives are compounds containing a carboxylic acid group (or a derivative thereof) linked to an indole. Naphthylmethylindoles: Any compound containing a 1H-indol-3-yl-(1-naphthyl)methane structure with substitution at the nitrogen atom of the indole ring by an alkyl, haloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkylmethyl, cycloalkylethyl, 1-(N-methyl-2-piperidinyl)methyl, or 2-(4-morpholinyl)ethyl group whether or not further substituted in the indole ring to any extent and whether or not substituted in the naphthyl ring to any extent. One example given is JWH-250. Outside of the human body, indole-3-carboxylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as brassicas, broccoli, pulses, common beets, and barley. This could make indole-3-carboxylic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Notice the pentyl group substituted onto the nitrogen atom of the indole ring. Note that this definition encompasses only those compounds that have OH groups attached to both the phenyl and the cyclohexyl rings, and so does not include compounds such as O-1871 which lacks the cyclohexyl OH group, or compounds such as JWH-337 or JWH-344 which lack the phenolic OH group.
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Sinapine (CAS: 18696-26-9), also known as sinapoylcholine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Sinapine is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Sinapine has been detected, but not quantified, in garden cress and horseradish. Sinapine is found in brassicas. It is a storage protein isolated from the seeds of Brassica napus (rape). This could make sinapine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Amentoflavone is found in fruits. Amentoflavone is obtained from Viburnum prunifolium (black haw
Glucoibervirin is a member of the class of compounds known as alkylglucosinolates. Alkylglucosinolates are organic compounds containing a glucosinolate moiety that carries an alkyl chain. Glucoibervirin is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). Glucoibervirin can be found in a number of food items such as rocket salad (sspecies), chinese mustard, kohlrabi, and chinese cabbage, which makes glucoibervirin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Racemethionine, also known as DL-methionine or hmet, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methionine and derivatives. Methionine and derivatives are compounds containing methionine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of methionine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Methionine is an alpha-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2SCH3. This essential amino acid is classified as nonpolar. Racemethionine exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Racemethionine is a mild, acidic, and sulfurous tasting compound. Racemethionine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as wheats, oats, and ryes and in a lower concentration in spinachs, white cabbages, and green zucchinis. Racemethionine is used as a flavouring ingredient and dietary supplement.
Sinapine (CAS: 18696-26-9), also known as sinapoylcholine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as morphinans. These are polycyclic compounds with a four-ring skeleton with three condensed six-member rings forming a partially hydrogenated phenanthrene moiety, one of which is aromatic while the two others are alicyclic. Sinapine is an extremely weak basic (essentially neutral) compound (based on its pKa). Sinapine has been detected, but not quantified, in garden cress and horseradish. Sinapine is found in brassicas. It is a storage protein isolated from the seeds of Brassica napus (rape). This could make sinapine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
cis-Zeatin O-glucoside, also known as O-beta-D-glucosylzeatin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as fatty acyl glycosides of mono- and disaccharides. Fatty acyl glycosides of mono- and disaccharides are compounds composed of a mono- or disaccharide moiety linked to one hydroxyl group of a fatty alcohol, a phosphorylated alcohol (phosphoprenol), or a hydroxy fatty acid, or to one carboxyl group of a fatty acid (ester linkage) or an amino alcohol. cis-Zeatin O-glucoside is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). cis-Zeatin O-glucoside is an intermediate in zeatin biosynthesis. It is generated from cis-zeatin via the enzyme cis-zeatin O-beta-D-glucosyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.215).
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Fucoxanthin is a carotenoid, with formula C40H60O6. It is found as an accessory pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae and most other heterokonts, giving them a brown or olive-green color. Fucoxanthin absorbs light primarily in the blue-green to yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, peaking at around 510-525 nm by various estimates and absorbing significantly in the range of 450 to 540 nm. -- Wikipedia.
Moupinamide is found in eggplant. Moupinamide is an alkaloid from Piper nigru
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
An organochlorine insecticide that has been used as a pediculicide and a scabicide. Lindane has been banned in California, United Kingdom, Australia, and many western countries due to concerns about neurotoxicity and adverse effects on the environment. In Canada, Lindane is not recommmended as a first-line therapy due to reports of resistance, neurotoxicity, and bone marrow suppression, but has been approved by the FDA as a second-line therapy for topical treatment of pediculosis capitis (head lice), pediculosis pubis (pubic lice), or scabies in patients greater than two years of age who cannot tolerate or have failed first-line treatment.
Stigmastanol, also known as sitostanol or (3b)-stigmastan-3-ol, belongs to stigmastanes and derivatives class of compounds. Those are sterol lipids with a structure based on the stigmastane skeleton, which consists of a cholestane moiety bearing an ethyl group at the carbon atom C24. Stigmastanol is practically insoluble (in water) and an extremely weak acidic compound (based on its pKa). Stigmastanol can be found primarily in blood and feces, as well as in human skeletal muscle tissue. Stigmastanol can be found anywhere throughout the human cell, such as in in the peroxisome, in the cytoplasm, in the Golgi apparatus, and in the membrane (predicted from logP). It can also be found in the extracellular space. Moreover, stigmastanol is found to be associated with sitosterolemia, an inborn error of metabolism. Stigmastanol (sitostanol) is a phytosterol found in a variety of plant sources. Similar to sterol esters and stanol esters, stigmastanol inhibits the absorption of cholesterol from the diet. Animal studies suggest that it also inhibits biosynthesis of cholesterol in the liver (Wikipedia). Stigmastanol is plant stanol. It can decrease the circulating LDL-cholesterol level by reducing intestinal cholesterol absorption (PMID 16910223).
Insecticide. Clofenotane is a major component of commercial DDT (other names *Gespan*, *Gesarol*, *Geverol*, *Chlorophenotane*). Use banned or discouraged in many countrie
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Isoprothiolane is an Agricultural fungicide for rice crop
Cinnamtannin II is found in chinese cinnamon. Cinnamtannin II is isolated from Cinnamomum cassia (Chinese cinnamon).
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Glycerol or glycerin is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and mostly non-toxic. It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol is an important component of triglycerides (i.e. fats and oils) and of phospholipids. Glycerol is a three-carbon substance that forms the backbone of fatty acids in fats. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream. The glycerol component can be converted into glucose by the liver and provides energy for cellular metabolism. Normally, glycerol shows very little acute toxicity and very high oral doses or acute exposures can be tolerated. On the other hand, chronically high levels of glycerol in the blood are associated with glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD). GKD causes the condition known as hyperglycerolemia, an accumulation of glycerol in the blood and urine. There are three clinically distinct forms of GKD: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The infantile form is the most severe and is associated with vomiting, lethargy, severe developmental delay, and adrenal insufficiency. The mechanisms of glycerol toxicity in infants are not known, but it appears to shift metabolism towards chronic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated GKD. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. Patients with the adult form of GKD generally have no symptoms and are often detected fortuitously.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an important polyunsaturated fatty acid found in fish oils. It serves as the precursor for the prostaglandin-3 and thromboxane-3 families. A diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid lowers serum lipid concentration, reduces incidence of cardiovascular disorders, prevents platelet aggregation, and inhibits arachidonic acid conversion into the thromboxane-2 and prostaglandin-2 families. Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5(n-3). Its systematic chemical name is all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-icosapentaenoic acid. It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. Chemically, EPA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end. Because of the presence of double bonds, EPS is a polyunsaturated fatty acid. Metabolically it acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3 (which inhibits platelet aggregation), thromboxane-3, and leukotriene-5 groups. It is found in fish oils of cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden, and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk (Wikipedia).
Quercetin 3-O-glucuronide is a cocoa and tea metabolite in plasma and urine.
7,7',8,8'-Tetrahydrolycopene, also known as zeta-carotene, is a carotenoid found in human serum and breast milk (PMID: 9164160). Carotenoids are isoprenoid molecules that are widespread in nature and are typically seen as pigments in fruits, flowers, birds, and crustacea. Animals are unable to synthesize carotenoids de novo and rely upon the diet as a source of these compounds. Over recent years there has been considerable interest in dietary carotenoids with respect to their potential in alleviating age-related diseases in humans. This attention has been mirrored by significant advances in cloning most of the carotenoid genes and in the genetic manipulation of crop plants with the intention of increasing levels in the diet. Studies have shown an inverse relationship between the consumption of certain fruits and vegetables and the risk of epithelial cancer. Since carotenoids are among the micronutrients found in cancer-preventive foods, detailed qualitative and quantitative determination of these compounds, particularly in fruits and vegetables and in human plasma, have recently become increasingly important (PMID: 1416048, 15003396). 7,7',8,8'-Tetrahydrolycopene is found in root vegetables and is a constituent of carrot oil and many other natural products.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Iprodione is an Agricultural and horticultural fungicid
Demethoxycurcumin is found in beverages. Demethoxycurcumin is isolated from Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Curcuma xanthorrhiza (Java turmeric).
PC(18:0/18:1(9Z)) is a phosphatidylcholine (PC or GPCho). It is a glycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. As is the case with diacylglycerols, glycerophosphocholines can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 and C-2 positions. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. PC(18:0/18:1(9Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position and one chain of oleic acid at the C-2 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil, while the oleic acid moiety is derived from vegetable oils, especially olive and canola oil. Phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and signaling.While most phospholipids have a saturated fatty acid on C-1 and an unsaturated fatty acid on C-2 of the glycerol backbone, the fatty acid distribution at the C-1 and C-2 positions of glycerol within phospholipids is continually in flux, owing to phospholipid degradation and the continuous phospholipid remodeling that occurs while these molecules are in membranes. PCs can be synthesized via three different routes. In one route, choline is activated first by phosphorylation and then by coupling to CDP prior to attachment to phosphatidic acid. PCs can also synthesized by the addition of choline to CDP-activated 1,2-diacylglycerol. A third route to PC synthesis involves the conversion of either PS or PE to PC.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Human metabolite of <ht>JR790-Z</ht
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Isoprothiolane is an Agricultural fungicide for rice crop
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Benzene is an organic chemical compound with the molecular formula C6H6. The benzene molecule is composed of six carbon atoms joined in a planar ring with one hydrogen atom attached to each. Because it contains only carbon and hydrogen atoms, benzene is classed as a hydrocarbon. Benzene, also known as benzol or [6]annulene, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzene and substituted derivatives. These are aromatic compounds containing one monocyclic ring system consisting of benzene. Benzene is a natural constituent of crude oil and is one of the elementary petrochemicals. Due to the cyclic continuous pi bonds between the carbon atoms, benzene is classed as an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is sometimes abbreviated PhH. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell, and is partially responsible for the aroma around petrol (gasoline) stations. It is used primarily as a precursor to the manufacture of chemicals with more complex structure, such as ethylbenzene and cumene, of which billions of kilograms are produced annually. Although a major industrial chemical, benzene finds limited use in consumer items because of its toxicity. Benzene is formally rated as a carcinogen (by IARC 1) and is also a potentially toxic compound. Benzene has been found to be associated with several diseases such as autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Diethanolamine, often abbreviated as DEA, is an organic chemical compound which is both a secondary amine and a dialcohol. A dialcohol has two hydroxyl groups in its molecule. Like other amines, diethanolamine acts as a weak base. Diethanolamine is widely used in the preparation of diethanolamides and diethanolamine salts of long-chain fatty acids that are formulated into soaps and surfactants used in liquid laundry and dishwashing detergents, cosmetics, shampoos, and hair conditioners. Diethanolamine is also used in textile processing, in industrial gas purification to remove acid gases, as an anticorrosion agent in metalworking fluids, and in preparations of agricultural chemicals. Aqueous diethanolamine solutions are used as solvents for numerous drugs that are administered intravenously.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
alpha-Tocopherol is traditionally recognized as the most active form of vitamin E in humans and is a powerful biological antioxidant. The measurement of "vitamin E" activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of spontaneous abortions in pregnant rats relative to alpha-Tocopherol. Natural vitamin E exists in eight different forms or isomers: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. In foods, the most abundant sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils such as palm oil, sunflower, corn, soybean, and olive oil. Nuts, sunflower seeds, and wheat germ are also good sources.
Triethanolamine, also known as H3TEA or trolamine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1,2-aminoalcohols. These are organic compounds containing an alkyl chain with an amine group bound to the C1 atom and an alcohol group bound to the C2 atom. A 2009 study stated that patch test reactions reveal a slight irritant potential instead of a true allergic response in several cases, and also indicated the risk of skin sensitization to TEOA seems to be very low. Triethanolamine is a drug. Triethanolamine is a potentially toxic compound. Triethanolamine aka Trolamine (abbr. as TEOA to distinguish it from TEA which is for triethylamine) is a viscous organic compound that is both a tertiary amine and a triol. TEOA is used to provide a sensitivity boost to silver-halide-based holograms, and also as a swelling agent to color shift holograms. Approximately 150,000 tonnes were produced in 1999.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
7,7',8,8'-Tetrahydrolycopene, also known as zeta-carotene, is a carotenoid found in human serum and breast milk (PMID: 9164160). Carotenoids are isoprenoid molecules that are widespread in nature and are typically seen as pigments in fruits, flowers, birds, and crustacea. Animals are unable to synthesize carotenoids de novo and rely upon the diet as a source of these compounds. Over recent years there has been considerable interest in dietary carotenoids with respect to their potential in alleviating age-related diseases in humans. This attention has been mirrored by significant advances in cloning most of the carotenoid genes and in the genetic manipulation of crop plants with the intention of increasing levels in the diet. Studies have shown an inverse relationship between the consumption of certain fruits and vegetables and the risk of epithelial cancer. Since carotenoids are among the micronutrients found in cancer-preventive foods, detailed qualitative and quantitative determination of these compounds, particularly in fruits and vegetables and in human plasma, have recently become increasingly important (PMID: 1416048, 15003396). 7,7',8,8'-Tetrahydrolycopene is found in root vegetables and is a constituent of carrot oil and many other natural products.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
A study of the effects of chlorpyrifos on humans exposed over time showed that people exposed to high levels have autoimmune antibodies that are common in people with autoimmune disorders. There is a strong correlation to chronic illness associated with autoimmune disorders after exposure to chlorpyrifos. Among 50 farm pesticides studied, chlorpyrifos was one of two found to be associated with higher risks of lung cancer among frequent pesticide applicators than among infrequent or non-users. Pesticide applicators as a whole were found to have a 50% lower cancer risk than the general public, which is attributable to the nearly 50% lower smoking rate found among farm workers. However, applicators of chlorpyrifos had a 15% lower cancer risk than the general public, which the study suggests indicates a likely link between chlorpyrifos application and lung cancer. Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) is a crystalline organophosphate insecticide. It was introduced in 1965 by Dow Chemical Company and is known by many trade names (see table), including Dursban and Lorsban. It acts on the nervous system of insects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphate, with potential for both acute toxicity at larger amounts and neurological effects in fetuses and children even at very small amounts. For acute effects, the EPA classifies chlorpyrifos as Class II: moderately toxic. The oral LD50 for chlorpyrifos in experimental animals is 32 to 1000 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is greater than 2000 mg/kg and 1000 to 2000 mg/kg in rabbits. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for chlorpyrifos in rats is greater than 200 mg/m3. First registered in 1965 and marketed by Dow Chemical under the tradenames Dursban, Lorsban and Renoban, chlorpyrifos was a well known home and garden insecticide, and at one time it was one of the most widely used household pesticides in the US.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Lycopene (molecular formula: C40H56) is a bright red carotenoid pigment. It is a phytochemical found in tomatoes and other red fruits. Lycopene is the most common carotenoid in the human body and is one of the most potent carotenoid antioxidants. Its name is derived from the tomato's species classification, Solanum lycopersicum. Lycopene is a terpene assembled from 8 isoprene units. Lycopene is the most powerful carotenoid quencher of singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen from ultraviolet light is a primary cause of skin aging (Wikipedia).
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Moupinamide is found in eggplant. Moupinamide is an alkaloid from Piper nigru
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Triethanolamine, also known as H3TEA or trolamine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 1,2-aminoalcohols. These are organic compounds containing an alkyl chain with an amine group bound to the C1 atom and an alcohol group bound to the C2 atom. A 2009 study stated that patch test reactions reveal a slight irritant potential instead of a true allergic response in several cases, and also indicated the risk of skin sensitization to TEOA seems to be very low. Triethanolamine is a drug. Triethanolamine is a potentially toxic compound. Triethanolamine aka Trolamine (abbr. as TEOA to distinguish it from TEA which is for triethylamine) is a viscous organic compound that is both a tertiary amine and a triol. TEOA is used to provide a sensitivity boost to silver-halide-based holograms, and also as a swelling agent to color shift holograms. Approximately 150,000 tonnes were produced in 1999.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Diethanolamine, often abbreviated as DEA, is an organic chemical compound which is both a secondary amine and a dialcohol. A dialcohol has two hydroxyl groups in its molecule. Like other amines, diethanolamine acts as a weak base. Diethanolamine is widely used in the preparation of diethanolamides and diethanolamine salts of long-chain fatty acids that are formulated into soaps and surfactants used in liquid laundry and dishwashing detergents, cosmetics, shampoos, and hair conditioners. Diethanolamine is also used in textile processing, in industrial gas purification to remove acid gases, as an anticorrosion agent in metalworking fluids, and in preparations of agricultural chemicals. Aqueous diethanolamine solutions are used as solvents for numerous drugs that are administered intravenously.
Quercetin 3-O-glucuronide is a cocoa and tea metabolite in plasma and urine.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
PC(16:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)) is a phosphatidylcholine (PC or GPCho). It is a glycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. As is the case with diacylglycerols, glycerophosphocholines can have many different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 and C-2 positions. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. PC(16:0/20:4(5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of palmitic acid at the C-1 position and one chain of arachidonic acid at the C-2 position. The palmitic acid moiety is derived from fish oils, milk fats, vegetable oils and animal fats, while the arachidonic acid moiety is derived from animal fats and eggs. Phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism and signaling.While most phospholipids have a saturated fatty acid on C-1 and an unsaturated fatty acid on C-2 of the glycerol backbone, the fatty acid distribution at the C-1 and C-2 positions of glycerol within phospholipids is continually in flux, owing to phospholipid degradation and the continuous phospholipid remodeling that occurs while these molecules are in membranes. PCs can be synthesized via three different routes. In one route, choline is activated first by phosphorylation and then by coupling to CDP prior to attachment to phosphatidic acid. PCs can also synthesized by the addition of choline to CDP-activated 1,2-diacylglycerol. A third route to PC synthesis involves the conversion of either PS or PE to PC.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Prodelphinidin trimer gc-c-c is a member of the class of compounds known as biflavonoids and polyflavonoids. Biflavonoids and polyflavonoids are organic compounds containing at least two flavan/flavone units. These units are usually linked through CC or C-O-C bonds. Some examples include C2-O-C3, C2-O-C4, C3'-C3''', and C6-C8''. Prodelphinidin trimer gc-c-c is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Prodelphinidin trimer gc-c-c can be found in beer, which makes prodelphinidin trimer gc-c-c a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Demethoxycurcumin is found in beverages. Demethoxycurcumin is isolated from Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary), Curcuma longa (turmeric), Curcuma xanthorrhiza (Java turmeric).
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
LysoPC(18:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:0), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Squalene is an unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon (carotenoid) with six unconjugated double bonds found in human sebum (5%), fish liver oils, yeast lipids, and many vegetable oils (e.g. palm oil, cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil). Squalene is a volatile component of the scent material from Saguinus oedipus (cotton-top tamarin monkey) and Saguinus fuscicollis (saddle-back tamarin monkey) (Hawley's Condensed Chemical Reference). Squalene is a component of adult human sebum that is principally responsible for fixing fingerprints (ChemNetBase). It is a natural organic compound originally obtained for commercial purposes primarily from shark liver oil, though there are botanical sources as well, including rice bran, wheat germ, and olives. All higher organisms produce squalene, including humans. It is a hydrocarbon and a triterpene. Squalene is a biochemical precursor to the whole family of steroids. Oxidation of one of the terminal double bonds of squalene yields 2,3-squalene oxide which undergoes enzyme-catalyzed cyclization to afford lanosterol, which is then elaborated into cholesterol and other steroids. Squalene is a low-density compound often stored in the bodies of cartilaginous fishes such as sharks, which lack a swim bladder and must therefore reduce their body density with fats and oils. Squalene, which is stored mainly in the shark's liver, is lighter than water with a specific gravity of 0.855 (Wikipedia) Squalene is used as a bactericide. It is also an intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, rubber chemicals, and colouring materials (Physical Constants of Chemical Substances).
6-Methoxy-2(3H)-benzoxazolone is found in alcoholic beverages. 6-Methoxy-2(3H)-benzoxazolone is isolated from roots of Coix lacryma jobi (Job's tears) and from seedlings of wheat, corn and rye.
Beta-Carotene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as carotenes. These are a type of polyunsaturated hydrocarbon molecules containing eight consecutive isoprene units. Carotenes are characterized by the presence of two end-groups (mostly cyclohexene rings, but also cyclopentene rings or acyclic groups) linked by a long branched alkyl chain. Beta-carotene is therefore considered to be an isoprenoid lipid molecule. Beta-carotene is a strongly coloured red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. It is synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and therefore has 40 carbons. Among the carotenes, beta-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. Beta-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. It is the most common form of carotene in plants. In nature, Beta-carotene is a precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A. Vitamin A is produed via the action of beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase on carotenes. In mammals, carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the small intestine and dependent on a class B scavenger receptor (SR-B1) membrane protein, which is also responsible for the absorption of vitamin E. One molecule of beta-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme Beta-Beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase into two molecules of vitamin A. Beta-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese gac and crude palm oil are particularly rich sources, as are yellow and orange fruits, such as cantaloupe, mangoes, pumpkin, and papayas, and orange root vegetables such as carrots and sweet potatoes. Excess beta-carotene is predominantly stored in the fat tissues of the body. The most common side effect of excessive beta-carotene consumption is carotenodermia, a physically harmless condition that presents as a conspicuous orange skin tint arising from deposition of the carotenoid in the outermost layer of the epidermis.
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
1,3-Diphenyl-1-propanone is found in mushrooms. 1,3-Diphenyl-1-propanone is isolated from Phallus impudicus (common stinkhorn
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Quercetin 3-O-glucuronide is a cocoa and tea metabolite in plasma and urine.
Fucoxanthin is a carotenoid, with formula C40H60O6. It is found as an accessory pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae and most other heterokonts, giving them a brown or olive-green color. Fucoxanthin absorbs light primarily in the blue-green to yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, peaking at around 510-525 nm by various estimates and absorbing significantly in the range of 450 to 540 nm. -- Wikipedia.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Lycopene (molecular formula: C40H56) is a bright red carotenoid pigment. It is a phytochemical found in tomatoes and other red fruits. Lycopene is the most common carotenoid in the human body and is one of the most potent carotenoid antioxidants. Its name is derived from the tomato's species classification, Solanum lycopersicum. Lycopene is a terpene assembled from 8 isoprene units. Lycopene is the most powerful carotenoid quencher of singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen from ultraviolet light is a primary cause of skin aging (Wikipedia).
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
2-Isopropylphenyl methylcarbamate is an Agricultural insecticide used on rice, cocoa, sugar cane, vegetables and other crop
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
alpha-Tocopherol is traditionally recognized as the most active form of vitamin E in humans and is a powerful biological antioxidant. The measurement of "vitamin E" activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of spontaneous abortions in pregnant rats relative to alpha-Tocopherol. Natural vitamin E exists in eight different forms or isomers: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. In foods, the most abundant sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils such as palm oil, sunflower, corn, soybean, and olive oil. Nuts, sunflower seeds, and wheat germ are also good sources.
LysoPC(18:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:0), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
1,3-Diphenyl-1-propanone is found in mushrooms. 1,3-Diphenyl-1-propanone is isolated from Phallus impudicus (common stinkhorn
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Beta-Carotene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as carotenes. These are a type of polyunsaturated hydrocarbon molecules containing eight consecutive isoprene units. Carotenes are characterized by the presence of two end-groups (mostly cyclohexene rings, but also cyclopentene rings or acyclic groups) linked by a long branched alkyl chain. Beta-carotene is therefore considered to be an isoprenoid lipid molecule. Beta-carotene is a strongly coloured red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. It is synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and therefore has 40 carbons. Among the carotenes, beta-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. Beta-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. It is the most common form of carotene in plants. In nature, Beta-carotene is a precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A. Vitamin A is produed via the action of beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase on carotenes. In mammals, carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the small intestine and dependent on a class B scavenger receptor (SR-B1) membrane protein, which is also responsible for the absorption of vitamin E. One molecule of beta-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme Beta-Beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase into two molecules of vitamin A. Beta-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese gac and crude palm oil are particularly rich sources, as are yellow and orange fruits, such as cantaloupe, mangoes, pumpkin, and papayas, and orange root vegetables such as carrots and sweet potatoes. Excess beta-carotene is predominantly stored in the fat tissues of the body. The most common side effect of excessive beta-carotene consumption is carotenodermia, a physically harmless condition that presents as a conspicuous orange skin tint arising from deposition of the carotenoid in the outermost layer of the epidermis.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Lutein is a common carotenoid xanthophyll found in nature. Carotenoids are among the most common pigments in nature and are natural lipid-soluble antioxidants. Lutein is one of the two carotenoids (the other is zeaxanthin) that accumulate in the eye lens and macular region of the retina with concentrations in the macula greater than those found in plasma and other tissues. Lutein and zeaxanthin have identical chemical formulas and are isomers, but they are not stereoisomers. The main difference between them is in the location of a double bond in one of the end rings. This difference gives lutein three chiral centers whereas zeaxanthin has two. A relationship between macular pigment optical density, a marker of lutein and zeaxanthin concentration in the macula, and lens optical density, an antecedent of cataractous changes, has been suggested. The xanthophylls may act to protect the eye from ultraviolet phototoxicity via quenching reactive oxygen species and/or other mechanisms. Some observational studies have shown that generous intakes of lutein and zeaxanthin, particularly from certain xanthophyll-rich foods like spinach, broccoli, and eggs, are associated with a significant reduction in the risk for cataracts (up to 20%) and age-related macular degeneration (up to 40%). While the pathophysiology of cataract and age-related macular degeneration is complex and contains both environmental and genetic components, research studies suggest dietary factors including antioxidant vitamins and xanthophylls may contribute to a reduction in the risk of these degenerative eye diseases. Further research is necessary to confirm these observations (PMID: 11023002).
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Mitotane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a derivative of the insecticide dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane that specifically inhibits cells of the adrenal cortex and their production of hormones. It is used to treat adrenocortical tumors and causes CNS damage, but no bone marrow depression. [PubChem]Its biochemical mechanism of action is unknown, although data are available to suggest that the drug modifies the peripheral metabolism of steroids as well as directly suppressing the adrenal cortex.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Hexane, also known as hexan or CH3-[CH2]4-CH3, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alkanes. These are acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2 , and therefore consisting entirely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms. Thus, hexane is considered to be a hydrocarbon lipid molecule. Hexane is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hexane is an gasoline tasting compound. Hexane can be found, on average, in the highest concentration within kohlrabis. Hexane has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as pomes, nuts, fruits, mushrooms, and corns. Exposure to hexane may also damage the lungs and reproductive system. Hexane is a potentially toxic compound. It causes degeneration of the peripheral nervous system (and eventually the central nervous system), starting with damage to the nerve axons. The initial reaction is oxidation by cytochrome P-450 isozymes to hexanols, predominantly 2-hexanol. Inhalation of high concentrations produces first a state of mild euphoria, followed by somnolence with headaches and nausea. 2,5-Hexanedione also reacts with lysine side-chain amino groups in axonal cytoskeletal proteins to form pyrroles. Continued exposure may lead to paralysis of the arms and legs.
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Selective preemergent herbicide used on food crop
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Cyclohexane is found in kohlrabi. Diluent in colour additive mixtures for food us
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Enilconazole is an Agricultural fungicide Enilconazole is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. It is also called Imazalil, Chloramizole, Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
alpha-Tocopherol is traditionally recognized as the most active form of vitamin E in humans and is a powerful biological antioxidant. The measurement of "vitamin E" activity in international units (IU) was based on fertility enhancement by the prevention of spontaneous abortions in pregnant rats relative to alpha-Tocopherol. Natural vitamin E exists in eight different forms or isomers: four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. In foods, the most abundant sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils such as palm oil, sunflower, corn, soybean, and olive oil. Nuts, sunflower seeds, and wheat germ are also good sources.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
beta-Hexachlorocyclohexane is a by-product of the production of the insecticide lindane. It belongs to the family of Cycloalkanes. These are alkanes containing one or more saturated rings of carbon atoms. They consist of only carbon and hydrogen atoms and are saturated.
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
A study of the effects of chlorpyrifos on humans exposed over time showed that people exposed to high levels have autoimmune antibodies that are common in people with autoimmune disorders. There is a strong correlation to chronic illness associated with autoimmune disorders after exposure to chlorpyrifos. Among 50 farm pesticides studied, chlorpyrifos was one of two found to be associated with higher risks of lung cancer among frequent pesticide applicators than among infrequent or non-users. Pesticide applicators as a whole were found to have a 50% lower cancer risk than the general public, which is attributable to the nearly 50% lower smoking rate found among farm workers. However, applicators of chlorpyrifos had a 15% lower cancer risk than the general public, which the study suggests indicates a likely link between chlorpyrifos application and lung cancer. Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) is a crystalline organophosphate insecticide. It was introduced in 1965 by Dow Chemical Company and is known by many trade names (see table), including Dursban and Lorsban. It acts on the nervous system of insects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphate, with potential for both acute toxicity at larger amounts and neurological effects in fetuses and children even at very small amounts. For acute effects, the EPA classifies chlorpyrifos as Class II: moderately toxic. The oral LD50 for chlorpyrifos in experimental animals is 32 to 1000 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is greater than 2000 mg/kg and 1000 to 2000 mg/kg in rabbits. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for chlorpyrifos in rats is greater than 200 mg/m3. First registered in 1965 and marketed by Dow Chemical under the tradenames Dursban, Lorsban and Renoban, chlorpyrifos was a well known home and garden insecticide, and at one time it was one of the most widely used household pesticides in the US.
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis (PMID:10775436). p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID:22626821). Uremic toxins include other low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (PMID:18941347). It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. Higher levels are associated with overgrowth of intestinal bacteria from Clostridia species, including C. difficile. p-Cresol is generated by the partial breakdown of tyrosine and phenylalanine by a wide range of intestinal obligate or facultative anaerobes, including the genera Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Enterobacter, Bifidobacterium, and especially Clostridium (PMID:2394806).
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite and also a metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. It has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). It is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well-known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress. In vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblast function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell (PMID: 10681668 , 14681860 , 17471003 , 17403109). Indoxyl sulfate is a microbial metabolite found in Escherichia (PMID: 19946322).
Symmetric dimethylarginine, also known as N,n'-dimethylarginine or SDMA, is a L-arginine derivative having two methyl groups at the N(omega)- and N'(omega)-positions It has a role as an EC 1.14.13.39 (nitric oxide synthase) inhibitor. It is a member of guanidines, a non-proteinogenic L-alpha-amino acid, a L-arginine derivative and a dimethylarginine. It is a tautomer of a N(omega),N'(omega)-dimethyl-L-arginine zwitterion. It belongs to the class of organic compounds known as arginine and derivatives. Arginine and derivatives are compounds containing arginine or a derivative thereof resulting from reaction of arginine at the amino group or the carboxy group, or from the replacement of any hydrogen of glycine by a heteroatom. Symmetric dimethylarginine is a drug. Outside of the human body, symmetric dimethylarginine has been detected, but not quantified in pulses. Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of Symmetric dimethylarginine occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Mesitylene or 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene is a derivative of benzene with three methyl substituents symmetrically placed on the ring. Isomeric trimethylbenzenes include hemimellitene (1,2,3-trimethylbenzene) and pseudocumene (1,2,4-trimethylbenzene). All three compounds have the formula C6H3(CH3)3, which is commonly abbreviated C6H3Me3. Mesitylene is a colourless liquid with sweet aromatic odor. It is a component of coal tar, which is its traditional source. It is a precursor to diverse fine chemicals. The mesityl group (Mes) is a substituent with the formula C6H3Me3.
beta-Zeacarotene is found in cereals and cereal products. beta-Zeacarotene is isolated from sweet corn (Zea mays) grains and Citrus specie
N-Dodecane is found in black walnut. Dodecane is a liquid alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)10CH3. It is an oily liquid of the paraffin series and has 355 isomers. (Wikipedia). Dodecane is a volatile organic compound found in feces of patients with Clostridium difficile infection, and considered as a potential fecal biomarker of Clostridium difficile infection (PMID: 30986230).
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Glycerol or glycerin is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and mostly non-toxic. It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol is an important component of triglycerides (i.e. fats and oils) and of phospholipids. Glycerol is a three-carbon substance that forms the backbone of fatty acids in fats. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream. The glycerol component can be converted into glucose by the liver and provides energy for cellular metabolism. Normally, glycerol shows very little acute toxicity and very high oral doses or acute exposures can be tolerated. On the other hand, chronically high levels of glycerol in the blood are associated with glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD). GKD causes the condition known as hyperglycerolemia, an accumulation of glycerol in the blood and urine. There are three clinically distinct forms of GKD: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The infantile form is the most severe and is associated with vomiting, lethargy, severe developmental delay, and adrenal insufficiency. The mechanisms of glycerol toxicity in infants are not known, but it appears to shift metabolism towards chronic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated GKD. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. Patients with the adult form of GKD generally have no symptoms and are often detected fortuitously.
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
Beta-Carotene belongs to the class of organic compounds known as carotenes. These are a type of polyunsaturated hydrocarbon molecules containing eight consecutive isoprene units. Carotenes are characterized by the presence of two end-groups (mostly cyclohexene rings, but also cyclopentene rings or acyclic groups) linked by a long branched alkyl chain. Beta-carotene is therefore considered to be an isoprenoid lipid molecule. Beta-carotene is a strongly coloured red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. It is synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and therefore has 40 carbons. Among the carotenes, beta-carotene is distinguished by having beta-rings at both ends of the molecule. Beta-Carotene is biosynthesized from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. It is the most common form of carotene in plants. In nature, Beta-carotene is a precursor (inactive form) to vitamin A. Vitamin A is produed via the action of beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase on carotenes. In mammals, carotenoid absorption is restricted to the duodenum of the small intestine and dependent on a class B scavenger receptor (SR-B1) membrane protein, which is also responsible for the absorption of vitamin E. One molecule of beta-carotene can be cleaved by the intestinal enzyme Beta-Beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase into two molecules of vitamin A. Beta-Carotene contributes to the orange color of many different fruits and vegetables. Vietnamese gac and crude palm oil are particularly rich sources, as are yellow and orange fruits, such as cantaloupe, mangoes, pumpkin, and papayas, and orange root vegetables such as carrots and sweet potatoes. Excess beta-carotene is predominantly stored in the fat tissues of the body. The most common side effect of excessive beta-carotene consumption is carotenodermia, a physically harmless condition that presents as a conspicuous orange skin tint arising from deposition of the carotenoid in the outermost layer of the epidermis.
Isoprothiolane is an Agricultural fungicide for rice crop
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Trametenolic acid B is found in mushrooms. Trametenolic acid B is a metabolite of Ganoderma tsugae (red reishi
Fucoxanthin is a carotenoid, with formula C40H60O6. It is found as an accessory pigment in the chloroplasts of brown algae and most other heterokonts, giving them a brown or olive-green color. Fucoxanthin absorbs light primarily in the blue-green to yellow-green part of the visible spectrum, peaking at around 510-525 nm by various estimates and absorbing significantly in the range of 450 to 540 nm. -- Wikipedia.
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Subaphylline is found in avocado. Subaphylline is an alkaloid from Ananas comosus (pineapple).
LysoPC(18:1(9Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:19Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of oleic acid at the C-1 position. The oleic acid moiety, an omega-9 fatty acid, is derived from various animal and vegetable sources such as olive oil, acai and grapeseed oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography. ADMA has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals. Tyramine is a biomarker for the consumption of cheese
Pyrrhoxanthinol is found in mollusks. Pyrrhoxanthinol is a constituent of Mytilus edulis (blue mussel)
Alloxanthin is found in channel catfish. Alloxanthin is a constituent of many shellfish including the giant scallop (Pecten maximus) and edible mussel (Mytilus edulis).
Isofenphos is an Agricultural insecticide with contact and stomach actio
gamma-Carotene is a cyclic carotene obtained by the cyclization of lycopene. It is found in human serum and breast milk (PMID: 9164160). Carotenoids are isoprenoid molecules that are widespread in nature and are typically seen as pigments in fruits, flowers, birds, and crustacea. Animals are unable to synthesize carotenoids de novo and rely upon the diet as a source of these compounds. Over recent years there has been considerable interest in dietary carotenoids with respect to their potential in alleviating age-related diseases in humans. This attention has been mirrored by significant advances in cloning most of the carotenoid genes and in the genetic manipulation of crop plants with the intention of increasing levels in the diet. Studies have shown an inverse relationship between the consumption of certain fruits and vegetables and the risk of epithelial cancer. Since carotenoids are among the micronutrients found in cancer-preventive foods, detailed qualitative and quantitative determination of these compounds, particularly in fruits and vegetables and in human plasma, have recently become increasingly important (PMID: 1416048, 15003396).
Subaphylline is found in avocado. Subaphylline is an alkaloid from Ananas comosus (pineapple).
Lutein is a common carotenoid xanthophyll found in nature. Carotenoids are among the most common pigments in nature and are natural lipid-soluble antioxidants. Lutein is one of the two carotenoids (the other is zeaxanthin) that accumulate in the eye lens and macular region of the retina with concentrations in the macula greater than those found in plasma and other tissues. Lutein and zeaxanthin have identical chemical formulas and are isomers, but they are not stereoisomers. The main difference between them is in the location of a double bond in one of the end rings. This difference gives lutein three chiral centers whereas zeaxanthin has two. A relationship between macular pigment optical density, a marker of lutein and zeaxanthin concentration in the macula, and lens optical density, an antecedent of cataractous changes, has been suggested. The xanthophylls may act to protect the eye from ultraviolet phototoxicity via quenching reactive oxygen species and/or other mechanisms. Some observational studies have shown that generous intakes of lutein and zeaxanthin, particularly from certain xanthophyll-rich foods like spinach, broccoli, and eggs, are associated with a significant reduction in the risk for cataracts (up to 20%) and age-related macular degeneration (up to 40%). While the pathophysiology of cataract and age-related macular degeneration is complex and contains both environmental and genetic components, research studies suggest dietary factors including antioxidant vitamins and xanthophylls may contribute to a reduction in the risk of these degenerative eye diseases. Further research is necessary to confirm these observations (PMID: 11023002).