Glycoursodeoxycholic acid is an acyl glycine and a bile acid-glycine conjugate. It is a secondary bile acid produced by the action of enzymes existing in the microbial flora of the colonic environment. In hepatocytes, both primary and secondary bile acids undergo amino acid conjugation at the C-24 carboxylic acid on the side chain, and almost all bile acids in the bile duct therefore exist in a glycine conjugated form (PMID: 16949895). Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Pyrocatechol, often known as catechol or benzene-1,2-diol, is a benzenediol, with formula C6H4(OH)2. It was first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch by distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu). This colourless compound occurs naturally, but about 20000 tons are manufactured each year, mainly as precursors to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. Its sulfonic acid is often present in the urine of many mammals. Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown benzoquinone derivatives. The enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice, or by refrigeration. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction. Catechol melts at 28 °C and boils at 250 °C. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application. Pyrocatechol has also been found to be a microbial metabolite in Escherichia, Mycobacterium and Pseudomonas (PMID:19300498; PMID:25281236).
Xanthosine, also known as xanthine riboside, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Xanthosine is a nucleoside derived from xanthine and ribose. Xanthosine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants xanthosine is the biosynthetic precursor to 7-methylxanthosine which is produced by the action of the enzyme known as 7-methylxanthosine synthase. 7-Methylxanthosine in turn is the precursor to theobromine (the active alkaloid in chocolate), which in turn is the precursor to caffeine, the active alkaloid in coffee and tea. Within humans, xanthosine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthosine can be biosynthesized from xanthylic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme cytosolic purine 5'-nucleotidase. In addition, xanthosine can be converted into xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. Xanthosine monophosphate (XMP) is an intermediate in purine metabolism, formed from IMP (inosine monophosphate).
Homovanillic acid (HVA), also known as homovanillate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. HVA is also classified as a catechol.  HVA is a major catecholamine metabolite that is produced by a consecutive action of monoamine oxidase and catechol-O-methyltransferase on dopamine. HVA is typically elevated in patients with catecholamine-secreting tumors (such as neuroblastoma, pheochromocytoma, and other neural crest tumors). HVA levels are also used in monitoring patients who have been treated for these kinds tumors. HVA levels may also be altered in disorders of catecholamine metabolism such as monoamine oxidase-A (MOA) deficiency. MOA deficiency can cause decreased urinary HVA values, while a deficiency of dopamine beta-hydrolase (the enzyme that converts dopamine to norepinephrine) can cause elevated urinary HVA values. Within humans, HVA participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, HVA and pyrocatechol can be biosynthesized from 3,4-dihydroxybenzeneacetic acid and guaiacol. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme known as catechol O-methyltransferase. In addition, HVA can be biosynthesized from homovanillin through the action of the enzyme known aldehyde dehydrogenase. HVA has recently been found in a number of beers and appears to arise from the fermentation process (https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.1999.0593). HVA is also a metabolite of Bifidobacterium (PMID: 24958563) and the bacterial breakdown of dietary flavonoids. Dietary flavonols commonly found in tomatoes, onions, and tea, can lead to significantly elevated levels of urinary HVA (PMID: 20933512). Likewise, the microbial digestion of hydroxytyrosol (found in olive oil) can also lead to elevated levels of HVA in humans (PMID: 11929304).
Cystathionine is a dipeptide formed by serine and homocysteine. Cystathioninuria is a prominent manifestation of vitamin-B6 deficiency. The transsulfuration of methionine yields homocysteine, which combines with serine to form cystathionine, the proximate precursor of cysteine through the enzymatic activity of cystathionase. In conditions in which cystathionine gamma-synthase or cystathionase is deficient, for example, there is cystathioninuria. Although cystathionine has not been detected in normal human serum or plasma by most conventional methods, gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric methodology detected a mean concentration of cystathionine in normal human serum of 140 nM, with a range of 65 to 301 nM. Cystathionine concentrations in CSF have been 10, 1, and 0.5 uM, and "not detected". Only traces (i.e., <1 uM) of cystathionine are present in normal CSF.587. Gamma-cystathionase deficiency (also known as Cystathioninuria), which is an autosomal recessive disorder (NIH: 2428), provided the first instance in which, in a human, the major biochemical abnormality due to a defined enzyme defect was clearly shown to be alleviated by administration of large doses of pyridoxine. The response in gamma-cystathionase-deficient patients is not attributable to correction of a preexisting deficiency of this vitamin (OMMBID, Chap. 88).
Tauroursodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid also known as TUDCA formed in the liver by conjugation of deoxycholate with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. TUDCA is able to prevent apoptosis and protect mitochondria from cellular elements that would otherwise interfere with energy production. One of these elements is a protein called Bax. TUDCA plays an important role in preventing Bax from being transported to the mitochondria. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an important polyunsaturated fatty acid found in fish oils. It serves as the precursor for the prostaglandin-3 and thromboxane-3 families. A diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid lowers serum lipid concentration, reduces incidence of cardiovascular disorders, prevents platelet aggregation, and inhibits arachidonic acid conversion into the thromboxane-2 and prostaglandin-2 families. Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5(n-3). Its systematic chemical name is all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-icosapentaenoic acid. It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. Chemically, EPA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end. Because of the presence of double bonds, EPS is a polyunsaturated fatty acid. Metabolically it acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3 (which inhibits platelet aggregation), thromboxane-3, and leukotriene-5 groups. It is found in fish oils of cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden, and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk (Wikipedia).
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Hippuric acid is an acyl glycine formed from the conjugation of benzoic acid with glycine. Acyl glycines are produced through the action of glycine N-acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.13) which is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: acyl-CoA + glycine < -- > CoA + N-acylglycine. Hippuric acid is a normal component of urine and is typically increased with increased consumption of phenolic compounds (tea, wine, fruit juices). These phenols are converted into benzoic acid which is then converted into hippuric acid and excreted in the urine. Hippuric acid is the most frequently used biomarker in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to toluene. This product of solvent biotransformation may be also found in the urine of individuals who have not been exposed to the solvent. A smaller fraction of the absorbed toluene is oxidized into aromatic compounds including ortho-cresol, which is not found in the urine of nonexposed individuals in a significant amount. The concentration of hippuric acid in the urine of individuals exposed to a low toluene concentration does not differ from that of individuals not exposed to the solvent. This has led to the conclusion that hippuric acid should not be utilized in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to low levels of toluene in the air. Protein-bound organic acids such as hippuric acid are markedly accumulated in uremic plasma and produce defective protein binding of drugs (PMID: 9120876 , 8734460). Hippuric acid has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Hippuric acid is also found to be associated with phenylketonuria, propionic acidemia, and tyrosinemia I, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Hippuric acid is an endogenous phenolic acid metabolite detected after the consumption of whole grain.
5-Methylcytidine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine nucleosides. Pyrimidine nucleosides are compounds comprising a pyrimidine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety.
Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid, also known as alpha-hydroxybenzoylglycine or a-hydroxyhippate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hippuric acids. Hippuric acids are compounds containing hippuric acid, which consists of a of a benzoyl group linked to the N-terminal of a glycine. Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid (or Benzamidohydroxyacetic acid) is a carboxylic acid occasionally present in human biofluids. Alpha-hydroxyhippuric acid should not be confused with 2-hydroxyhippuric acid. It is used in the formulation of some herbicides and inks to enhance their action (Patents US 1996-657134, US 1975-627965). It is a substrate for the enzyme peptidyl-alpha-hydroxyglycine alpha-amidating lyase. Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid (or Benzamidohydroxyacetic acid) is a hippuric acid derivative that is occasionally present in human biofluids.
D-Ribose, commonly referred to as simply ribose, is a five-carbon sugar found in all living cells. Ribose is not an essential nutrient because it can be synthesized by almost every tissue in the body from other substances, such as glucose. It is vital for life as a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP, and AMP. In nature, small amounts of ribose can be found in ripe fruits and vegetables. Brewer's yeast, which has a high concentration of RNA, is another rich source of ribose. D-ribose is also a component of many so-called energy drinks and anti-ageing products available on the market today. Ribose is a structural component of ATP, which is the primary energy source for exercising muscle. The adenosine component is an adenine base attached to the five-carbon sugar ribose. ATP provides energy to working muscles by releasing a phosphate group, hence becoming ADP, which in turn may release a phosphate group, then becoming AMP. During intense muscular activity, the total amount of ATP available is quickly depleted. In an effort to correct this imbalance, AMP is broken down in the muscle and secreted from the cell. Once the breakdown products of AMP are released from the cell, the energy potential (TAN pool) of the muscle is reduced and ATP must then be reformed using ribose. Ribose helps restore the level of adenine nucleotides by bypassing the rate-limiting step in the de novo (oxidative pentose phosphate) pathway, which regenerates phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP), the essential precursor for ATP. If ribose is not readily available to a cell, glucose may be converted to ribose. Ribose supplementation has been shown to increase the rate of ATP resynthesis following intense exercise. The use of ribose in men with severe coronary artery disease resulted in improved exercise tolerance. Hence, there is interest in the potential of ribose supplements to boost muscular performance in athletic activities (PMID: 17618002, Curr Sports Med Rep. 2007 Jul;6(4):254-7.).
2-Methylguanosine is an endogenous methylated nucleoside found in human fluids; methylated purine bases are present in higher amounts in tumor-bearing patients compared to healthy controls.DNA hypermethylation is a common finding in malignant cells and has been explored as a therapeutic target for hypomethylating agents. When chemical bonds to DNA, the DNA becomes damaged and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell. A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject. (PMID: 17336316, 17154124, 3506820, 17044778, 17264127).
Palmitoleoylethanolamde (POEA), belongs to the class of organic compounds known as N-acylethanolamines. N-Acylethanolamines are compounds containing an N-acyethanolamine moiety, which is characterized by an acyl group is linked to the nitrogen atom of ethanolamine. Thus, palmitoleoylethanolamde is considered to be a fatty amide lipid molecule. Palmitoleoylethanolamde is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. During abstinence, young adults with a history of alcohol binge drinking had elevated plasma levels of monounsaturated and polyunsaturatedacylethanolamides, specifically oleoylethanolamide (OEA), palmitoleoylethanolamide (POEA), arachidonoylethanolamide (AEA), and dihomo-gamma-linolenoylethanolamide (DGLEA). Changes in these lipids positively correlated with mRNA upregulation of inflammatory markers in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), such as toll-like receptors (TLR4), pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines, and cyclooxygenase-2 (PMID: 29178411).
Caffeic acid (CAS: 331-39-5) is a polyphenol present in normal human urine positively correlated to coffee consumption and influenced by the dietary intake of diverse types of food (PMID:16870009). Caffeic acid has been found to be a microbial metabolite of Escherichia (PMID: 28396925).
2-Aminobenzoic acid, also known as anthranilic acid or O-aminobenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as aminobenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids containing an amine group attached to the benzene moiety. Within humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 2-aminobenzoic acid and formic acid can be biosynthesized from formylanthranilic acid through its interaction with the enzyme kynurenine formamidase. In addition, 2-aminobenzoic acid and L-alanine can be biosynthesized from L-kynurenine through its interaction with the enzyme kynureninase. It is a substrate of enzyme 2-Aminobenzoic acid hydroxylase in benzoate degradation via hydroxylation pathway (KEGG). In humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid is involved in tryptophan metabolism. Outside of the human body, 2-Aminobenzoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mamey sapotes, prairie turnips, rowals, natal plums, and hyacinth beans. This could make 2-aminobenzoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 2-Aminobenzoic acid is a is a tryptophan-derived uremic toxin with multidirectional properties that can affect the hemostatic system. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma.
Chenodeoxycholic acid glycine conjugate is an acyl glycine and a bile acid-glycine conugate. It is a secondary bile acid produced by the action of enzymes existing in the microbial flora of the colonic environment. In hepatocytes, both primary and secondary bile acids undergo amino acid conjugation at the C-24 carboxylic acid on the side chain, and almost all bile acids in the bile duct therefore exist in a glycine conjugated form (PMID: 16949895). This compound usually exists as the sodium salt and acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is a cholagogue and choleretic.
Xanthosine, also known as xanthine riboside, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Xanthosine is a nucleoside derived from xanthine and ribose. Xanthosine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants xanthosine is the biosynthetic precursor to 7-methylxanthosine which is produced by the action of the enzyme known as 7-methylxanthosine synthase. 7-Methylxanthosine in turn is the precursor to theobromine (the active alkaloid in chocolate), which in turn is the precursor to caffeine, the active alkaloid in coffee and tea. Within humans, xanthosine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthosine can be biosynthesized from xanthylic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme cytosolic purine 5'-nucleotidase. In addition, xanthosine can be converted into xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. Xanthosine monophosphate (XMP) is an intermediate in purine metabolism, formed from IMP (inosine monophosphate).
Pyrocatechol, often known as catechol or benzene-1,2-diol, is a benzenediol, with formula C6H4(OH)2. It was first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch by distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu). This colourless compound occurs naturally, but about 20000 tons are manufactured each year, mainly as precursors to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. Its sulfonic acid is often present in the urine of many mammals. Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown benzoquinone derivatives. The enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice, or by refrigeration. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction. Catechol melts at 28 °C and boils at 250 °C. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application. Pyrocatechol has also been found to be a microbial metabolite in Escherichia, Mycobacterium and Pseudomonas (PMID:19300498; PMID:25281236).
Taurocholic acid is a bile acid and is the product of the conjugation of cholic acid with taurine. Its sodium salt is the chief ingredient of the bile of carnivorous animals. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine, and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH, and consequently require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Taurocholic acid, as with all bile acids, acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as a cholagogue and choleretic (a bile purging agent). Hydrolysis of taurocholic acid yields taurine, a nonessential amino acid. Taurocholic acid is one of the main components of urinary nonsulfated bile acids in biliary atresia. Raised levels of taurocholate in fetal serum in obstetric cholestasis may result in the development of a fetal dysrhythmia and sudden intra-uterine death (PMID: 3944741, 11256973).
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
N2-Acetylornithine, also known as N(alpha)-acetylornithine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as N-acyl-L-alpha-amino acids. These are N-acylated alpha-amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. N-Acetylornithine is a minor component of the deproteinized blood plasma of human blood. Human blood plasma contains a variable amount of acetylornithine, averaging 1.1 +/- 0.4 umol/L (range 0.8-0.2 umol/L). Urine contains a very small amount of acetylornithine, approximately 1 nmol/mg creatinine (1 umol/day) (PMID:508804).
trans-Cinnamic acid, also known as (e)-cinnamic acid or phenylacrylic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as cinnamic acids. These are organic aromatic compounds containing a benzene and a carboxylic acid group forming 3-phenylprop-2-enoic acid. trans-Cinnamic acid exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. trans-Cinnamic acid is a sweet, balsam, and cinnamon tasting compound. Outside of the human body, trans-Cinnamic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as chinese cinnamons, olives, and lingonberries and in a lower concentration in redcurrants, red raspberries, and corianders. trans-Cinnamic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as common oregano, pepper (spice), fennels, pomegranates, and european cranberries. This could make trans-cinnamic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Cinnamic acid has been shown to be a microbial metabolite; it can be found in Alcaligenes, Brevibacterium, Cellulomonas, and Pseudomonas (PMID:16349793). trans-Cinnamic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Riboflavin or vitamin B2 is an easily absorbed, water-soluble micronutrient with a key role in maintaining human health. Like the other B vitamins, it supports energy production by aiding in the metabolizing of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Vitamin B2 is also required for red blood cell formation and respiration, antibody production, and for regulating human growth and reproduction. It is essential for healthy skin, nails, hair growth and general good health, including regulating thyroid activity. Riboflavin is found in milk, eggs, malted barley, liver, kidney, heart, and leafy vegetables. Riboflavin is yellow or orange-yellow in color and in addition to being used as a food coloring it is also used to fortify some foods. It can be found in baby foods, breakfast cereals, sauces, processed cheese, fruit drinks and vitamin-enriched milk products. The richest natural source is yeast. It occurs in the free form only in the retina of the eye, in whey, and in urine; its principal forms in tissues and cells are as flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide.
D-Galactose (CAS: 59-23-4) is an aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. D-Galactose is an energy-providing nutrient and also a necessary basic substrate for the biosynthesis of many macromolecules in the body. Metabolic pathways for D-galactose are important not only for the provision of these pathways but also for the prevention of D-galactose metabolite accumulation. The main source of D-galactose is lactose in the milk of mammals, but it can also be found in some fruits and vegetables. Utilization of D-galactose in all living cells is initiated by the phosphorylation of the hexose by the enzyme galactokinase (E.C. 2.7.1.6) (GALK) to form D-galactose-1-phosphate. In the presence of D-galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (E.C. 2.7.7.12) (GALT) D-galactose-1-phosphate is exchanged with glucose-1-phosphate in UDP-glucose to form UDP-galactose. Glucose-1-phosphate will then enter the glycolytic pathway for energy production. Deficiency of the enzyme GALT in galactosemic patients leads to the accumulation of D-galactose-1-phosphate. Classic galactosemia, a term that denotes the presence of D-galactose in the blood, is the rare inborn error of D-galactose metabolism, diagnosed by the deficiency of the second enzyme of the D-galactose assimilation pathway, GALT, which, in turn, is caused by mutations at the GALT gene (PMID: 15256214, 11020650, 10408771). Galactose in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of milk.
D-Galactose (CAS: 59-23-4) is an aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. D-Galactose is an energy-providing nutrient and also a necessary basic substrate for the biosynthesis of many macromolecules in the body. Metabolic pathways for D-galactose are important not only for the provision of these pathways but also for the prevention of D-galactose metabolite accumulation. The main source of D-galactose is lactose in the milk of mammals, but it can also be found in some fruits and vegetables. Utilization of D-galactose in all living cells is initiated by the phosphorylation of the hexose by the enzyme galactokinase (E.C. 2.7.1.6) (GALK) to form D-galactose-1-phosphate. In the presence of D-galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (E.C. 2.7.7.12) (GALT) D-galactose-1-phosphate is exchanged with glucose-1-phosphate in UDP-glucose to form UDP-galactose. Glucose-1-phosphate will then enter the glycolytic pathway for energy production. Deficiency of the enzyme GALT in galactosemic patients leads to the accumulation of D-galactose-1-phosphate. Classic galactosemia, a term that denotes the presence of D-galactose in the blood, is the rare inborn error of D-galactose metabolism, diagnosed by the deficiency of the second enzyme of the D-galactose assimilation pathway, GALT, which, in turn, is caused by mutations at the GALT gene (PMID: 15256214, 11020650, 10408771). Galactose in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of milk.
LysoPE(16:0/0:0) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
Raffinose is a complex carbohydrate. It is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. It can be found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables, and whole grains. Raffinose is hydrolyzed to D-galactose and sucrose by D-galactosidase (D-GAL). D-GAL also hydrolyzes other D-galactosides such as stachyose, verbascose, and galactinol [1-O-(D-galactosyl)-myoinositol], if present. The enzyme does not cleave linked galactose, as in lactose. Raffinose is also known as melitose and may be thought of as galactose and sucrose connected via an alpha(1->6) glycosidic linkage. Thus, raffinose can be broken down into galactose and sucrose via the enzyme alpha-galactosidase. Human intestines do not contain this enzyme. Raffinose is a trisaccharide occurring in Australian manna (from Eucalyptus spp, Myrtaceae) and in cottonseed meal.
Ribothymidine is an endogenous methylated nucleoside found in human fluids; methylated purine bases are present in higher amounts in tumor-bearing patients compared to healthy controls.DNA hypermethylation is a common finding in malignant cells and has been explored as a therapeutic target for hypomethylating agents. When chemical bonds to DNA, the DNA becomes damaged and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell. A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject. (PMID:3506820, 17044778, 17264127, 16799933).
Flavouring compound [Flavornet]
Taurodeoxycholic acid is a bile salt formed in the liver by conjugation of deoxycholate with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID:11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135). Taurodeoxycholic acid can be found in Escherichia (PMID:30736766).
all-trans-Retinoic acid is an isomer of retinoic acid, the oxidized form of vitamin A. Retinoic acid functions in determining position along embryonic anterior/posterior axis in chordates. It acts through Hox genes, which ultimately controls anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages (PMID:17495912). It is an important regulator of gene expression during growth and development, and in neoplasms. As a drug, all-trans-retinoic acid is known as tretinoin. Tretinoin is derived from maternal vitamin A and is essential for normal growth and embryonic development. An excess of tretinoin can be teratogenic. Tretinoin is used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne vulgaris, and several other skin diseases. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia (leukemia, promyelocytic, acute).
trans-Cinnamic acid, also known as (e)-cinnamic acid or phenylacrylic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as cinnamic acids. These are organic aromatic compounds containing a benzene and a carboxylic acid group forming 3-phenylprop-2-enoic acid. trans-Cinnamic acid exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. trans-Cinnamic acid is a sweet, balsam, and cinnamon tasting compound. Outside of the human body, trans-Cinnamic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as chinese cinnamons, olives, and lingonberries and in a lower concentration in redcurrants, red raspberries, and corianders. trans-Cinnamic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as common oregano, pepper (spice), fennels, pomegranates, and european cranberries. This could make trans-cinnamic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Cinnamic acid has been shown to be a microbial metabolite; it can be found in Alcaligenes, Brevibacterium, Cellulomonas, and Pseudomonas (PMID:16349793). trans-Cinnamic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
7-Ketodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Shikimic acid, more commonly known as its anionic form shikimate, is a cyclohexene, a cyclitol and a cyclohexanecarboxylic acid. It is an important biochemical intermediate in plants and microorganisms. Its name comes from the Japanese flower shikimi (the Japanese star anise, Illicium anisatum), from which it was first isolated. Shikimic acid is a precursor for: the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine; indole, indole derivatives and tryptophan; many alkaloids and other aromatic metabolites; tannins; and lignin. In pharmaceutical industry, shikimic acid from chinese star anise is used as a base material for production of Tamiflu (oseltamivir). Although shikimic acid is present in most autotrophic organisms, it is a biosynthetic intermediate and generally found in very low concentrations.
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
L-Norleucine, also known as L-aminohexanoate or caprine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as l-alpha-amino acids. These are alpha amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. Thus, L-norleucine is considered to be a fatty acid lipid molecule. An unnatural amino acid that is used experimentally to study protein structure and function. L-Norleucine is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. L-Norleucine exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Outside of the human body, L-Norleucine has been detected, but not quantified in cow milk. This could make L-norleucine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It binds reversibly to the kringle domain of plasminogen and blocks the binding of plasminogen to fibrin and its activation to plasmin.
N4-Acetylcytidine is a modified nucleoside. N4-acetylcytidine is an endogenous urinary nucleoside product of the degradation of transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA); urinary nucleosides are biological markers for patients with colorectal cancer. tRNA has been shown to be excreted in abnormal amounts in the urine of cancer patients. tRNA from neoplastic tissue had a much more rapid turnover rate than the tRNA from the corresponding normal tissue. Evidence indicates that methylation of tRNA occurs only after synthesis of the intact macromolecule. Because there are no specific enzyme systems to incorporate the modified nucleosides into the macromolecular nucleic acid, these nucleosides once released in the process of tRNA turnover cannot be reutilized, nor are they further degraded, but are excreted in urine. (PMID: 15991285, 3506820).
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid that is benzoic acid with a hydroxy group at the ortho position. It is obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has a role as an antiinfective agent, an antifungal agent, a keratolytic drug, an EC 1.11.1.11 (L-ascorbate peroxidase) inhibitor, a plant metabolite, an algal metabolite and a plant hormone. It is a conjugate acid of a salicylate. It is a colorless solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. Salicylic acid modulates COX1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Salicylic acid works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor. The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis. Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana, it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
all-trans-Retinoic acid is an isomer of retinoic acid, the oxidized form of vitamin A. Retinoic acid functions in determining position along embryonic anterior/posterior axis in chordates. It acts through Hox genes, which ultimately controls anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages (PMID:17495912). It is an important regulator of gene expression during growth and development, and in neoplasms. As a drug, all-trans-retinoic acid is known as tretinoin. Tretinoin is derived from maternal vitamin A and is essential for normal growth and embryonic development. An excess of tretinoin can be teratogenic. Tretinoin is used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne vulgaris, and several other skin diseases. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia (leukemia, promyelocytic, acute).
Trehalose, also known as mycose, is a 1-alpha (disaccharide) sugar found extensively but not abundantly in nature. It is thought to be implicated in anhydrobiosis - the ability of plants and animals to withstand prolonged periods of desiccation. The sugar is thought to form a gel phase as cells dehydrate, which prevents disruption of internal cell organelles by effectively splinting them in position. Rehydration then allows normal cellular activity to be resumed without the major, generally lethal damage that would normally follow a dehydration/reyhdration cycle. Trehalose is a non-reducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1-1 alpha bond giving it the name of alpha-D-glucopyranoglucopyranosyl-1,1-alpha-D-glucopyranoside. The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore stable in solution at high temperatures even under acidic conditions. The bonding also keeps non-reducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end-groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). The enzyme trehalase, present but not abundant in most people, breaks it into two glucose molecules, which can then be readily absorbed in the gut. Trehalose is an important components of insects circulating fluid. It acts as a storage form of insect circulating fluid and it is important in respiration. Trehalose has also been found to be a metabolite of Burkholderia, Escherichia and Propionibacterium (PMID:12105274; PMID:25479689) (krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/84382/1/88571%20P-1257.pdf).
Phenol, is a toxic, colourless crystalline solid with a sweet tarry odor that resembles a hospital smell. It is commonly used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is active against a wide range of micro-organisms including some fungi and viruses, but is only slowly effective against spores. It has been used to disinfect skin and to relieve itching. Phenol is also used in the preparation of cosmetics including sunscreens, hair dyes, and skin lightening preparations. It is also used in the production of drugs (it is the starting material in the industrial production of aspirin), weedkillers, and synthetic resins. Phenol can be found in areas with high levels of motor traffic, therefore, people living in crowded urban areas are frequently exposed to traffic-derived phenol vapor. The average (mean +/- SD) phenol concentration in urine among normal individuals living in urban areas is 7.4 +/- 2.2 mg/g of creatinine. Exposure of the skin to concentrated phenol solutions causes chemical burns which may be severe; in laboratories where it is used, it is usually recommended that polyethylene glycol solution is kept available for washing off splashes. Notwithstanding the effects of concentrated solutions, it is also used in cosmetic surgery as an exfoliant, to remove layers of dead skin (Wikipedia). In some bacteria phenol can be directly synthesized from tyrosine via the enzyme tyrosine phenol-lyase [EC:4.1.99.2]. It can be produced by Escherichia and Pseudomonas. Phenol has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
m-Methylhippuric (m-MHA)acid is the principal metabolite of m-xylene. Most of the m-xylene inhaled by workers will be excreted in urine as m-MHA.
N6-Methyladenosine is a methylated adenine residue. N6-Methyladenosine is an endogenous urinary nucleoside product of the degradation of transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA); urinary nucleosides are biological markers for patients with colorectal cancer. tRNA has been shown to be excreted in abnormal amounts in the urine of cancer patients. tRNA from neoplastic tissue had a much more rapid turnover rate than the tRNA from the corresponding normal tissue. Evidence indicates that methylation of tRNA occurs only after synthesis of the intact macromolecule. Because there are no specific enzyme systems to incorporate the modified nucleosides into the macromolecular nucleic acid, these nucleosides once released in the process of tRNA turnover cannot be reutilized, nor are they further degraded, but are excreted in urine. (PMID: 15991285, 3506820).
Glycohyocholic acid (GHCA) is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Retinal is a carotenoid constituent of visual pigments. It is the oxidized form of retinol which functions as the active component of the visual cycle. It is bound to the protein opsin forming the complex rhodopsin. When stimulated by visible light, the retinal component of the rhodopsin complex undergoes isomerization at the 11-position of the double bond to the cis-form; this is reversed in "dark" reactions to return to the native trans-configuration.
Sorbitol is a polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications. Ascorbic acid fermentation; in solution form for moisture-conditioning of cosmetic creams and lotions, toothpaste, tobacco, gelatin; bodying agent for paper, textiles, and liquid pharmaceuticals; softener for candy; sugar crystallization inhibitor; surfactants; urethane resins and rigid foams; plasticizer, stabilizer for vinyl resins; food additive (sweetener, humectant, emulsifier, thickener, anticaking agent); dietary supplement. (Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary) Biological Source: Occurs widely in plants ranging from algae to the higher orders. Fruits of the plant family Rosaceae, which include apples, pears, cherries, apricots, contain appreciable amounts. Rich sources are the fruits of the Sorbus and Crataegus species Use/Importance: Used for manufacturing of sorbose, propylene glycol, ascorbic acid, resins, plasticizers and as antifreeze mixtures with glycerol or glycol. Tablet diluent, sweetening agent and humectant, other food uses. Sorbitol is used in photometric determination of Ru(VI) and Ru(VIII); in acid-base titration of borate (Dictionary of Organic Compounds).
Phenol, is a toxic, colourless crystalline solid with a sweet tarry odor that resembles a hospital smell. It is commonly used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is active against a wide range of micro-organisms including some fungi and viruses, but is only slowly effective against spores. It has been used to disinfect skin and to relieve itching. Phenol is also used in the preparation of cosmetics including sunscreens, hair dyes, and skin lightening preparations. It is also used in the production of drugs (it is the starting material in the industrial production of aspirin), weedkillers, and synthetic resins. Phenol can be found in areas with high levels of motor traffic, therefore, people living in crowded urban areas are frequently exposed to traffic-derived phenol vapor. The average (mean +/- SD) phenol concentration in urine among normal individuals living in urban areas is 7.4 +/- 2.2 mg/g of creatinine. Exposure of the skin to concentrated phenol solutions causes chemical burns which may be severe; in laboratories where it is used, it is usually recommended that polyethylene glycol solution is kept available for washing off splashes. Notwithstanding the effects of concentrated solutions, it is also used in cosmetic surgery as an exfoliant, to remove layers of dead skin (Wikipedia). In some bacteria phenol can be directly synthesized from tyrosine via the enzyme tyrosine phenol-lyase [EC:4.1.99.2]. It can be produced by Escherichia and Pseudomonas. Phenol has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821).
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
LysoPC(18:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:0), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is an essential fatty acid and the most abundant &#969;-3 fatty acid in neural tissues, especially in the retina and brain. Docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (DHEA) is the ethanolamine amide of DHA that has been detected in both brain and retina at concentrations similar to those for arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA).1,2 A 9.5 fold increase of DHEA was observed in brain lipid extracts from piglets fed a diet supplemented with DHA compared to a control diet without DHA.3 DHEA binds to the rat brain CB1 receptor with a Ki of 324 nM, which is approximately 10-fold higher than the Ki for AEA.4 DHEA inhibits shaker-related voltage-gated potassium channels in brain slightly better than AEA, with an IC50 of 1.5 ¬µM.
Xanthine, also known as 2,6-dioxopurine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Xanthine is also classified as an oxopurine. An oxopurine in which the purine ring is substituted by oxo groups at positions 2 and 6 and N-9 is protonated. Xanthine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants, several stimulants can be derived from xanthine, including caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine. Derivatives of xanthine (known collectively as xanthines) are a group of alkaloids commonly used for their effects as mild stimulants and as bronchodilators, notably in the treatment of asthma or influenza symptoms. Within humans, xanthine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthine can be biosynthesized from guanine; which is mediated by the enzyme guanine deaminase. In addition, xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate can be biosynthesized from xanthosine through the action of the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. In humans and other primates, xanthine can be converted to uric acid by the action of the xanthine oxidase enzyme. People with rare genetic disorders, specifically xanthinuria and Lesch‚ÄìNyhan syndrome, lack sufficient xanthine oxidase and cannot convert xanthine to uric acid. Individuals with xanthinuria have unusually high concentrations of xanthine in their blood and urine, which can lead to health problems such as renal failure and xanthine kidney stones. Individuals with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome have a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT). The HGPRT deficiency causes a build-up of uric acid in all body fluids. This results in both high levels of uric acid in the blood and urine, associated with severe gout and kidney problems. Neurological signs include poor muscle control and moderate intellectual disability.
4-Hydroxycinnamic acid, also known as p-Coumaric acid, is a coumaric acid in which the hydroxy substituent is located at C-4 of the phenyl ring. It has a role as a plant metabolite. It is a conjugate acid of a 4-coumarate. p-coumaric acid is an organic compound that is a hydroxy derivative of cinnamic acid. There are three isomers of coumaric acid: o-coumaric acid, m-coumaric acid, and p-coumaric acid, that differ by the position of the hydroxy substitution of the phenyl group. p-Coumaric acid is the most abundant isomer of the three in nature. p-Coumaric acid exists in two forms trans-p-coumaric acid and cis-p-coumaric acid. It is a crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and diethyl ether. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids are compounds containing an cinnamic acid where the benzene ring is hydroxylated. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as pepper (Capsicum frutescens), pineapples, and sunflowers and in a lower concentration in spinachs, kiwis, and sweet oranges. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as wild rices, soursops, garden onions, hyssops, and avocado.
7-Methylxanthine is a methyl derivative of xanthine, found occasionally in human urine. 7-Methylxanthine is one of the purine components in urinary calculi. Methylated purines originate from the metabolism of methylxanthines (caffeine, theophylline and theobromine). Caffeine is metabolized via successive pathways mainly catalyzed by CYP1A2, xanthine oxidase or N-acetyltransferase-2 to give 14 different metabolites, including 7-methylxanthine. CYP1A2 activity shows an inter-individual variability among the population. CYP1A2, an isoform of the CYP1A cytochrome P450 super-family, is involved in the metabolism of many drugs and plays a potentially important role in the induction of chemical carcinogenesis. Purine derivatives in urinary calculi could be considered markers of abnormal purine metabolism. The content of a purine derivative in stone depends on its average urinary excretion in the general population, similarity to the chemical structure of uric acid, and content of the latter in stone. This suggests that purines in stones represent a solid solution with uric acid as solvent. It is also plausible that methylxanthines, ubiquitous components of the diet and drugs, are involved in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. (PMID:11712316, 15833286, 3506820, 15013152).
Suberic acid, also octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid, with formula C6H12(COOH)2. It is present in the urine of patients with fatty acid oxidation disorders (PMID 10404733). A metabolic breakdown product derived from oleic acid. Elevated levels of this unstaruated dicarboxylic acid are found in individuals with medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD). Suberic acid is also found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, which are also inborn errors of metabolism.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Xanthosine, also known as xanthine riboside, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Xanthosine is a nucleoside derived from xanthine and ribose. Xanthosine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants xanthosine is the biosynthetic precursor to 7-methylxanthosine which is produced by the action of the enzyme known as 7-methylxanthosine synthase. 7-Methylxanthosine in turn is the precursor to theobromine (the active alkaloid in chocolate), which in turn is the precursor to caffeine, the active alkaloid in coffee and tea. Within humans, xanthosine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthosine can be biosynthesized from xanthylic acid; which is catalyzed by the enzyme cytosolic purine 5'-nucleotidase. In addition, xanthosine can be converted into xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate; which is mediated by the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. Xanthosine monophosphate (XMP) is an intermediate in purine metabolism, formed from IMP (inosine monophosphate).
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an important polyunsaturated fatty acid found in fish oils. It serves as the precursor for the prostaglandin-3 and thromboxane-3 families. A diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid lowers serum lipid concentration, reduces incidence of cardiovascular disorders, prevents platelet aggregation, and inhibits arachidonic acid conversion into the thromboxane-2 and prostaglandin-2 families. Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20:5(n-3). Its systematic chemical name is all-cis-5,8,11,14,17-icosapentaenoic acid. It also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. Chemically, EPA is a carboxylic acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds; the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the omega end. Because of the presence of double bonds, EPS is a polyunsaturated fatty acid. Metabolically it acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3 (which inhibits platelet aggregation), thromboxane-3, and leukotriene-5 groups. It is found in fish oils of cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden, and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk (Wikipedia).
Murocholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
1-Methyladenosine, also known as M1A, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Precise m6A mapping by m6A-CLIP/IP (briefly m6A-CLIP) revealed that a majority of m6A locates in the last exon of mRNAs in multiple tissues/cultured cells of mouse and human, and the m6A enrichment around stop codons is a coincidence that many stop codons locate round the start of last exons where m6A is truly enriched. The methylation of adenosine is directed by a large m6A methyltransferase complex containing METTL3 as the SAM-binding sub-unit. Insulin-like growth factor-2 mRNA-binding proteins 1, 2, and 3 (IGF2BP1-3) are reported as a novel class of m6A readers.
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
2-Methylguanosine is an endogenous methylated nucleoside found in human fluids; methylated purine bases are present in higher amounts in tumor-bearing patients compared to healthy controls.DNA hypermethylation is a common finding in malignant cells and has been explored as a therapeutic target for hypomethylating agents. When chemical bonds to DNA, the DNA becomes damaged and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell. A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject. (PMID: 17336316, 17154124, 3506820, 17044778, 17264127).
Pseudouridine, also known as psi-uridine or 5-ribosyluracil, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. These are analogues of nucleosides and nucleotides, such as phosphonated nucleosides, C-glycosylated nucleoside bases, analogues where the sugar unit is a pyranose, and carbocyclic nucleosides.  Pseudouridine specifically has its uracil attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond to the ribofuranose.  It is the most prevalent of the over one hundred different modified nucleosides found in RNA (PMID: 17113994).  Pseudouridine is a solid that is soluble in water.  Pseudouridine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans, and is in all classes of RNA except mRNA.  It is formed by enzymes called pseudouridine synthases, which post-transcriptionally isomerize specific uridine residues in RNA.
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Caffeic acid (CAS: 331-39-5) is a polyphenol present in normal human urine positively correlated to coffee consumption and influenced by the dietary intake of diverse types of food (PMID:16870009). Caffeic acid has been found to be a microbial metabolite of Escherichia (PMID: 28396925).
3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is a rutin metabolite and an antioxidant. It has a protective biological activity in human. It is a substrate of enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase [EC 1.14.13.3] in the pathway tyrosine metabolism (KEGG, PMID 155437). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is found to be associated with phenylketonuria, which is an inborn error of metabolism. It is also a marker of gut Clostridium species. Higher levels are associated with higher levels of Clostridia (PMID: 27123458). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid can also be found in Klebsiella (PMID: 1851804).
3b,7a,12a-Trihydroxy-5b-cholanoic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Melezitose, also spelled melicitose, is a nonreducing trisaccharide sugar that is produced by many plant sap eating insects, including aphids such as Cinara pilicornis by an enzyme reaction. This is beneficial to the insects, as it reduces the stress of osmosis by reducing their own water potential. The melezitose is part of the honeydew which acts as an attractant for ants and also as a food for bees. This is useful to the lice as they have a symbiotic relationship with ants. Melezitose can be partially hydrolyzed to glucose and turanose the latter of which is an isomer of sucrose (Wikipedia).
Diethyl phthalic acid, also known as diethyl phthalate, 1,2-diethyl phthalic acid or 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diethyl ester, is classified as a member of the benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid esters are ester derivatives of benzoic acid. Diethyl phthalic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic. This substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalic acid can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalic acid is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883) It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. (ChemoSummarizer)
Riboprine, also known as isopentenyladenosine or ipa, is a member of the class of compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Riboprine is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Riboprine can be found in a number of food items such as peppermint, chinese mustard, custard apple, and green bean, which makes riboprine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Caffeic acid (CAS: 331-39-5) is a polyphenol present in normal human urine positively correlated to coffee consumption and influenced by the dietary intake of diverse types of food (PMID:16870009). Caffeic acid has been found to be a microbial metabolite of Escherichia (PMID: 28396925).
Theobromine, or 3,7-Dimethylxanthine, is the principle alkaloid in Theobroma cacao (the cacao bean) and other plants. A xanthine alkaloid that is used as a bronchodilator and as a vasodilator. It has a weaker diuretic activity than theophylline and is also a less powerful stimulant of smooth muscle. It has practically no stimulant effect on the central nervous system. It was formerly used as a diuretic and in the treatment of angina pectoris and hypertension. Theobromine is a bitter alkaloid of the methylxanthine family, which also includes the similar compounds theophylline and caffeine. Despite its name, the compound contains no bromine. Theobromine is derived from Theobroma, the genus of the cacao tree, which is composed of the Greek roots theo ("God") and broma ("food"), meaning "food of the gods". It is the primary alkaloid found in cocoa and chocolate, and is one of the causes for chocolate's mood-elevating effects. The amount found in chocolate is small enough that chocolate can be safely consumed by humans in large quantities, but animals that metabolize theobromine more slowly, such as cats and dogs, can easily consume enough chocolate to cause chocolate poisoning. Theobromine is a stimulant frequently confused with caffeine. Theobromine has very different effects on the human body from caffeine; it is a mild, lasting stimulant with a mood improving effect, whereas caffeine has a strong, immediate effect and increases stress. In medicine, it is used as a diuretic, vasodilator, and myocardial stimulant. There is a possible association between prostate cancer and theobromine. Theobromine is a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid access to the esophagus.
Chorismic acid, more commonly known as its anionic form chorismate, is an important biochemical intermediate in plants and microorganisms. It is a precursor for the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine,indole, indole derivatives and tryptophan,2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) used for enterobactin biosynthesis,the plant hormone salicylic acid and many alkaloids and other aromatic metabolites. -- Wikipedia.
D-Galactose (CAS: 59-23-4) is an aldohexose that occurs naturally in the D-form in lactose, cerebrosides, gangliosides, and mucoproteins. D-Galactose is an energy-providing nutrient and also a necessary basic substrate for the biosynthesis of many macromolecules in the body. Metabolic pathways for D-galactose are important not only for the provision of these pathways but also for the prevention of D-galactose metabolite accumulation. The main source of D-galactose is lactose in the milk of mammals, but it can also be found in some fruits and vegetables. Utilization of D-galactose in all living cells is initiated by the phosphorylation of the hexose by the enzyme galactokinase (E.C. 2.7.1.6) (GALK) to form D-galactose-1-phosphate. In the presence of D-galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (E.C. 2.7.7.12) (GALT) D-galactose-1-phosphate is exchanged with glucose-1-phosphate in UDP-glucose to form UDP-galactose. Glucose-1-phosphate will then enter the glycolytic pathway for energy production. Deficiency of the enzyme GALT in galactosemic patients leads to the accumulation of D-galactose-1-phosphate. Classic galactosemia, a term that denotes the presence of D-galactose in the blood, is the rare inborn error of D-galactose metabolism, diagnosed by the deficiency of the second enzyme of the D-galactose assimilation pathway, GALT, which, in turn, is caused by mutations at the GALT gene (PMID: 15256214, 11020650, 10408771). Galactose in the urine is a biomarker for the consumption of milk.
Trehalose, also known as mycose, is a 1-alpha (disaccharide) sugar found extensively but not abundantly in nature. It is thought to be implicated in anhydrobiosis - the ability of plants and animals to withstand prolonged periods of desiccation. The sugar is thought to form a gel phase as cells dehydrate, which prevents disruption of internal cell organelles by effectively splinting them in position. Rehydration then allows normal cellular activity to be resumed without the major, generally lethal damage that would normally follow a dehydration/reyhdration cycle. Trehalose is a non-reducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1-1 alpha bond giving it the name of alpha-D-glucopyranoglucopyranosyl-1,1-alpha-D-glucopyranoside. The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore stable in solution at high temperatures even under acidic conditions. The bonding also keeps non-reducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end-groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). The enzyme trehalase, present but not abundant in most people, breaks it into two glucose molecules, which can then be readily absorbed in the gut. Trehalose is an important components of insects circulating fluid. It acts as a storage form of insect circulating fluid and it is important in respiration. Trehalose has also been found to be a metabolite of Burkholderia, Escherichia and Propionibacterium (PMID:12105274; PMID:25479689) (krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/bitstream/1/84382/1/88571%20P-1257.pdf).
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Higher levels of IAA are associated with bacteria from Clostridium species including C. stricklandii, C. lituseburense, C. subterminale, and C. putrefaciens (PMID: 12173102). IAA can be found in Agrobacterium, Azospirillum, Bacillus, Bradyrhizobium, Clostridium, Enterobacter, Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium (PMID: 12173102, PMID: 17555270, PMID: 12147474, PMID: 19400643, PMID: 9450337, PMID: 21397014) (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4612-3084-7_7) (https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1bf1b5m3). Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria (PMID: 13610897). IAA has also been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone (PMID: 13610897). Specifically, IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan (Wikipedia). IAA and some derivatives can be oxidized by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) into cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy (PMID: 11163327).
N2,N2-Dimethylguanosine is an urinary nucleoside, a primary degradation product of tRNA. The mean levels of urinary N2,N2-Dimethylguanosine in the patients with colorectal cancer are significantly higher than those in patients with intestinal villous adenoma or the healthy adults (PMID 15991285). N2,N2-Dimethylguanosine has been identified in the human placenta (PMID: 32033212).
N2-Acetylornithine, also known as N(alpha)-acetylornithine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as N-acyl-L-alpha-amino acids. These are N-acylated alpha-amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. N-Acetylornithine is a minor component of the deproteinized blood plasma of human blood. Human blood plasma contains a variable amount of acetylornithine, averaging 1.1 +/- 0.4 umol/L (range 0.8-0.2 umol/L). Urine contains a very small amount of acetylornithine, approximately 1 nmol/mg creatinine (1 umol/day) (PMID:508804).
Riboflavin or vitamin B2 is an easily absorbed, water-soluble micronutrient with a key role in maintaining human health. Like the other B vitamins, it supports energy production by aiding in the metabolizing of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Vitamin B2 is also required for red blood cell formation and respiration, antibody production, and for regulating human growth and reproduction. It is essential for healthy skin, nails, hair growth and general good health, including regulating thyroid activity. Riboflavin is found in milk, eggs, malted barley, liver, kidney, heart, and leafy vegetables. Riboflavin is yellow or orange-yellow in color and in addition to being used as a food coloring it is also used to fortify some foods. It can be found in baby foods, breakfast cereals, sauces, processed cheese, fruit drinks and vitamin-enriched milk products. The richest natural source is yeast. It occurs in the free form only in the retina of the eye, in whey, and in urine; its principal forms in tissues and cells are as flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide.
N4-Acetylcytidine is a modified nucleoside. N4-acetylcytidine is an endogenous urinary nucleoside product of the degradation of transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA); urinary nucleosides are biological markers for patients with colorectal cancer. tRNA has been shown to be excreted in abnormal amounts in the urine of cancer patients. tRNA from neoplastic tissue had a much more rapid turnover rate than the tRNA from the corresponding normal tissue. Evidence indicates that methylation of tRNA occurs only after synthesis of the intact macromolecule. Because there are no specific enzyme systems to incorporate the modified nucleosides into the macromolecular nucleic acid, these nucleosides once released in the process of tRNA turnover cannot be reutilized, nor are they further degraded, but are excreted in urine. (PMID: 15991285, 3506820).
7-Methylxanthine is a methyl derivative of xanthine, found occasionally in human urine. 7-Methylxanthine is one of the purine components in urinary calculi. Methylated purines originate from the metabolism of methylxanthines (caffeine, theophylline and theobromine). Caffeine is metabolized via successive pathways mainly catalyzed by CYP1A2, xanthine oxidase or N-acetyltransferase-2 to give 14 different metabolites, including 7-methylxanthine. CYP1A2 activity shows an inter-individual variability among the population. CYP1A2, an isoform of the CYP1A cytochrome P450 super-family, is involved in the metabolism of many drugs and plays a potentially important role in the induction of chemical carcinogenesis. Purine derivatives in urinary calculi could be considered markers of abnormal purine metabolism. The content of a purine derivative in stone depends on its average urinary excretion in the general population, similarity to the chemical structure of uric acid, and content of the latter in stone. This suggests that purines in stones represent a solid solution with uric acid as solvent. It is also plausible that methylxanthines, ubiquitous components of the diet and drugs, are involved in the pathogenesis of urolithiasis. (PMID:11712316, 15833286, 3506820, 15013152).
Melezitose, also spelled melicitose, is a nonreducing trisaccharide sugar that is produced by many plant sap eating insects, including aphids such as Cinara pilicornis by an enzyme reaction. This is beneficial to the insects, as it reduces the stress of osmosis by reducing their own water potential. The melezitose is part of the honeydew which acts as an attractant for ants and also as a food for bees. This is useful to the lice as they have a symbiotic relationship with ants. Melezitose can be partially hydrolyzed to glucose and turanose the latter of which is an isomer of sucrose (Wikipedia).
Sinapic acid, also known as sinapinate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids are compounds containing an cinnamic acid where the benzene ring is hydroxylated. Sinapic acid has been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as strawberry guava, purple lavers, common verbena, ryes, and lupines. This could make sinapic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. A sinapic acid in which the double bond has trans-configuration.
Isolithocholic acid is a bile acid formed from chenodeoxycholate by bacterial action, usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. It acts as a detergent to solubilize fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. It is used as cholagogue and choleretic. A bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
N-Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is present in the tissues of most mammals. It was initially described as an agonist of the type 2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2), although it is now universally recognized that PEA is in fact incapable of binding to cannabinoid receptors, or at least not to the known receptors. In addition to its anti-inflammatory activity, PEA also produces analgesia, neuroprotection, and possesses anti-epileptic properties. It also reduces gastrointestinal motility and cancer cell proliferation, as well as protecting the vascular endothelium in the ischemic heart. The physiological stimuli that regulate PEA levels in mammalian tissues are largely unknown, however, multiple studies indicate that this lipid accumulates during cellular stress, particularly following tissue injury. For example, PEA increases post-mortem in the pig brain. Similar elevations in PEA levels have been observed in the ischemic brain and PEA is also up-regulated in response to ultraviolet-B irradiation in mouse epidermal cells. Adipose tissue is highly implicated in the systemic secretion of IL-6 and leptin, and human mature adipocytes are able to secrete large quantity of PEA. Human adipose tissue can be subjected to modulation of its inflammatory state by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS strongly inhibits adipose cell leptin release, with PEA acting as a potentiator of this inhibitory effect. These actions are not linked to a reduction in leptin gene transcription. Thus, PEA does not have an anti-inflammatory role in the secretion of IL-6 via NFkappaB at the adipocyte level, but instead seems to act at the heart of the LPS-stimulated pathway, which, independently of NFkappaB, inhibits the secretion of leptin. (PMID: 16884908).
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Folic acid or folate, is a vitamin that belongs to the class of compounds known as pterins. Chemically, folate consists of three distinct chemical moieties linked together. A pterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-pteridine) linked by a methylene bridge to a p-aminobenzoyl group that in turn is linked through an amide linkage to glutamic acid. It is a member of the vitamin B family and is primarily known as vitamin B9. Folate is required for the body to make DNA and RNA and metabolize amino acids necessary for cell division for the hematopoietic system. As humans cannot make folate, it is required in the diet, making it an essential nutrient (i.e. a vitamin). Folate occurs naturally in many foods including mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid, being biochemically inactive, is converted to tetrahydrofolic acid and methyltetrahydrofolate by the enzyme known as dihydrofolate reductase. Tetrahydrofolate and methyltetrahydrofolate are transported across cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis where they are needed to maintain normal erythropoiesis, synthesize purine and thymidylate nucleic acids, interconvert amino acids and generate formic acid. Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia. Folic acid is also used as a supplement by women during pregnancy to reduce the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in babies. Low levels in early pregnancy are believed to be the cause of more than half of babies born with NTDs (PMID: 28097362). Folic acid is also a microbial metabolite produced by Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus (PMID: 22254078).
Flavouring compound [Flavornet]
Alanylphenylalanine is a dipeptide composed of alanine and phenylalanine. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Pseudouridine, also known as psi-uridine or 5-ribosyluracil, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. These are analogues of nucleosides and nucleotides, such as phosphonated nucleosides, C-glycosylated nucleoside bases, analogues where the sugar unit is a pyranose, and carbocyclic nucleosides.  Pseudouridine specifically has its uracil attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond to the ribofuranose.  It is the most prevalent of the over one hundred different modified nucleosides found in RNA (PMID: 17113994).  Pseudouridine is a solid that is soluble in water.  Pseudouridine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans, and is in all classes of RNA except mRNA.  It is formed by enzymes called pseudouridine synthases, which post-transcriptionally isomerize specific uridine residues in RNA.
Isovaleric acid, is a natural fatty acid found in a wide variety of plants and essential oils. Isovaleric acid is clear colorless liquid that is sparingly soluble in water, but well soluble in most common organic solvents. It has been suggested that isovaleric acid from pilot whales, a species frequently consumed in the Faroe Islands, may be the unusual dietary factor in prolonged gestation in the population of the Faroe Islands. Previous studies suggested that was due to the high intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids has been, but fatty acid data for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) in blood lipids of Faroese and Norwegians was reviewed in terms of the type of fish eaten (mostly lean white fish with DHA much greater than EPA); the popular lean fish, thus, probably provides too little EPA to produce a marked effect on human biochemistry (PMID 2646392). Isovaleric acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
7-methylguanosine is an endogenous methylated nucleoside found in human fluids; methylated purine bases are present in higher amounts in tumor-bearing patients compared to healthy controls.DNA hypermethylation is a common finding in malignant cells and has been explored as a therapeutic target for hypomethylating agents. When chemical bonds to DNA, the DNA becomes damaged and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell. A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject. 7-Methylguanosine is a substrate for purine-nucleoside phosphorylase and Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E. (PMID:3506820, 17044778, 17264127, 16799933).
D-Ribose, commonly referred to as simply ribose, is a five-carbon sugar found in all living cells. Ribose is not an essential nutrient because it can be synthesized by almost every tissue in the body from other substances, such as glucose. It is vital for life as a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP, and AMP. In nature, small amounts of ribose can be found in ripe fruits and vegetables. Brewer's yeast, which has a high concentration of RNA, is another rich source of ribose. D-ribose is also a component of many so-called energy drinks and anti-ageing products available on the market today. Ribose is a structural component of ATP, which is the primary energy source for exercising muscle. The adenosine component is an adenine base attached to the five-carbon sugar ribose. ATP provides energy to working muscles by releasing a phosphate group, hence becoming ADP, which in turn may release a phosphate group, then becoming AMP. During intense muscular activity, the total amount of ATP available is quickly depleted. In an effort to correct this imbalance, AMP is broken down in the muscle and secreted from the cell. Once the breakdown products of AMP are released from the cell, the energy potential (TAN pool) of the muscle is reduced and ATP must then be reformed using ribose. Ribose helps restore the level of adenine nucleotides by bypassing the rate-limiting step in the de novo (oxidative pentose phosphate) pathway, which regenerates phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP), the essential precursor for ATP. If ribose is not readily available to a cell, glucose may be converted to ribose. Ribose supplementation has been shown to increase the rate of ATP resynthesis following intense exercise. The use of ribose in men with severe coronary artery disease resulted in improved exercise tolerance. Hence, there is interest in the potential of ribose supplements to boost muscular performance in athletic activities (PMID: 17618002, Curr Sports Med Rep. 2007 Jul;6(4):254-7.).
Isoquercitrin is found in alcoholic beverages. Isoquercitrin occurs widely in plants. Isoquercitrin is present in red wine.Isoquercitin can be isolated from mangoes and from Rheum nobile, the Noble rhubarb or Sikkim rhubarb, a giant herbaceous plant native to the Himalaya. Quercetin glycosides are also present in tea. (Wikipedia
Allocholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
LysoPC(18:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:0), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Suberic acid, also octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid, with formula C6H12(COOH)2. It is present in the urine of patients with fatty acid oxidation disorders (PMID 10404733). A metabolic breakdown product derived from oleic acid. Elevated levels of this unstaruated dicarboxylic acid are found in individuals with medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD). Suberic acid is also found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, which are also inborn errors of metabolism.
3-Methyladipic acid is a metabolite of the catabolism of phytanic acid. Patients with adult Refsums disease (ARD) are unable to detoxify phytanic acid by alpha-oxidation, and so the w-oxidation pathway is the only metabolic pathway available for phytanic acid degradation. This pathway produces 3-methyladipic acid as the final metabolite, which is excreted in the urine (Wanders et al. 2001). Activity of the w-oxidation pathway is approximately doubled in ARD patients compared with normal individuals (PMID: 11948235).
Dihydrolipoic acid is an organic compound that is the reduced form of lipoic acid. This carboxylic acid features a pair of thiol groups. It is optically active but only the R-enantiomer is biochemically significant. The lipoic acid/dihydrolipoic acid pair participate in a variety of biochemical transformations.( from Wiki). Inside the cell, alpha lipoic acid is readily reduced or broken down to dihydrolipoic acid. Dihydrolipoic acid is even more potent than alpha lipoic acid, neutralizing free radicals, preventing them from causing harm. It directly destroys damaging superoxide radicals, hydroperoxy radicals and hydroxyl radicals. It has been shown in vitro that dihydrolipoate (DL-6,8-dithioloctanoic acid) has antioxidant activity against microsomal lipid peroxidation.Dihydrolipoate is tested for its neuroprotective activity using models of hypoxic and excitotoxic neuronal damage in vitro and rodent models of cerebral ischemia in vivo. Dihydrolipoate, similarly to dimethylthiourea, is able to protect neurons against ischemic damage by diminishing the accumulation of reactive oxygen species within the cerebral tissue.(PMID: 1345759).
Chorismic acid, more commonly known as its anionic form chorismate, is an important biochemical intermediate in plants and microorganisms. It is a precursor for the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine,indole, indole derivatives and tryptophan,2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB) used for enterobactin biosynthesis,the plant hormone salicylic acid and many alkaloids and other aromatic metabolites. -- Wikipedia.
Shikimic acid, more commonly known as its anionic form shikimate, is a cyclohexene, a cyclitol and a cyclohexanecarboxylic acid. It is an important biochemical intermediate in plants and microorganisms. Its name comes from the Japanese flower shikimi (the Japanese star anise, Illicium anisatum), from which it was first isolated. Shikimic acid is a precursor for: the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine; indole, indole derivatives and tryptophan; many alkaloids and other aromatic metabolites; tannins; and lignin. In pharmaceutical industry, shikimic acid from chinese star anise is used as a base material for production of Tamiflu (oseltamivir). Although shikimic acid is present in most autotrophic organisms, it is a biosynthetic intermediate and generally found in very low concentrations.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
7-Sulfocholic acid is a naturally occurring bile acid sulfate conjugate that has been identified in human bile (PMID: 7320139) and human urine. (PMID: 3584362). In mice significantly less cholic acid 7-sulfate (5-7%) is present in bladder bile and small intestine than in the cecum, colon, or feces (>80%). (PMID: 954753).
12-Ketodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Flavouring compound [Flavornet]
3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is a rutin metabolite and an antioxidant. It has a protective biological activity in human. It is a substrate of enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase [EC 1.14.13.3] in the pathway tyrosine metabolism (KEGG, PMID 155437). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is found to be associated with phenylketonuria, which is an inborn error of metabolism. It is also a marker of gut Clostridium species. Higher levels are associated with higher levels of Clostridia (PMID: 27123458). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid can also be found in Klebsiella (PMID: 1851804).
Spermidine, also known as SPD, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as dialkylamines. These are organic compounds containing a dialkylamine group, characterized by two alkyl groups bonded to the amino nitrogen. Abnormal bleeding, such as bleeding spontaneously or profusely from a very minor injury can also occur. Spermidine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Within humans, spermidine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 5'-methylthioadenosine and spermidine can be biosynthesized from S-adenosylmethioninamine and putrescine by the enzyme spermidine synthase. In addition, S-adenosylmethioninamine and spermidine can be converted into 5'-methylthioadenosine and spermine through the action of the enzyme spermine synthase. In humans, spermidine is involved in spermidine and spermine biosynthesis. Outside of the human body, spermidine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cow milk and oats. Spermidine has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as common chokecherries, watercress, agars, strawberry guava, and bog bilberries. This could make spermidine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Spermidine is consideres as an uremic toxine. Increased levels of uremic toxins can stimulate the production of reactive oxygen species. Chronic exposure to uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. As a uremic toxin, this compound can cause uremic syndrome. Uremic toxins such as spermidine are actively transported into the kidneys via organic ion transporters (especially OAT3).
Murocholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Raffinose is a complex carbohydrate. It is a trisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. It can be found in beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli, asparagus, other vegetables, and whole grains. Raffinose is hydrolyzed to D-galactose and sucrose by D-galactosidase (D-GAL). D-GAL also hydrolyzes other D-galactosides such as stachyose, verbascose, and galactinol [1-O-(D-galactosyl)-myoinositol], if present. The enzyme does not cleave linked galactose, as in lactose. Raffinose is also known as melitose and may be thought of as galactose and sucrose connected via an alpha(1->6) glycosidic linkage. Thus, raffinose can be broken down into galactose and sucrose via the enzyme alpha-galactosidase. Human intestines do not contain this enzyme. Raffinose is a trisaccharide occurring in Australian manna (from Eucalyptus spp, Myrtaceae) and in cottonseed meal.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Alanylphenylalanine is a dipeptide composed of alanine and phenylalanine. It is an incomplete breakdown product of protein digestion or protein catabolism. Some dipeptides are known to have physiological or cell-signaling effects although most are simply short-lived intermediates on their way to specific amino acid degradation pathways following further proteolysis.
Glycohyocholic acid (GHCA) is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
13-Methylmyristic acid (CAS# 2485-71-4), also known as 13-methyltetradecanoic acid, iso-pentadecanoic acid, 13-methyltetradecanoic acid, 13-MTD, or 13-MTDA, is an iso-fatty acid. It is used to study the induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis via the AKT and MAPK pathways. 13-MTDA is used for the biosynthesis of methyl-branched polyhydroxyalkanoates
7-Ketodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Pyrocatechol, often known as catechol or benzene-1,2-diol, is a benzenediol, with formula C6H4(OH)2. It was first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch by distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu). This colourless compound occurs naturally, but about 20000 tons are manufactured each year, mainly as precursors to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. Its sulfonic acid is often present in the urine of many mammals. Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown benzoquinone derivatives. The enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice, or by refrigeration. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction. Catechol melts at 28 °C and boils at 250 °C. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application. Pyrocatechol has also been found to be a microbial metabolite in Escherichia, Mycobacterium and Pseudomonas (PMID:19300498; PMID:25281236).
Pelargonic acid, or nonanoic acid, is a fatty acid which occurs naturally as esters is the oil of pelargonium. Synthetic esters, such as methyl nonanoate, are used as flavorings. Pelargonic acid is an organic compound composed of a nine-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid. It is an oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It is nearly insoluble in water, but well soluble in chloroform and ether. The derivative 4-nonanoylmorpholine is an ingredient in some pepper sprays.
Pseudouridine, also known as psi-uridine or 5-ribosyluracil, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. These are analogues of nucleosides and nucleotides, such as phosphonated nucleosides, C-glycosylated nucleoside bases, analogues where the sugar unit is a pyranose, and carbocyclic nucleosides.  Pseudouridine specifically has its uracil attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond to the ribofuranose.  It is the most prevalent of the over one hundred different modified nucleosides found in RNA (PMID: 17113994).  Pseudouridine is a solid that is soluble in water.  Pseudouridine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans, and is in all classes of RNA except mRNA.  It is formed by enzymes called pseudouridine synthases, which post-transcriptionally isomerize specific uridine residues in RNA.
Xanthine, also known as 2,6-dioxopurine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Xanthine is also classified as an oxopurine. An oxopurine in which the purine ring is substituted by oxo groups at positions 2 and 6 and N-9 is protonated. Xanthine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to plants to humans. In plants, several stimulants can be derived from xanthine, including caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine. Derivatives of xanthine (known collectively as xanthines) are a group of alkaloids commonly used for their effects as mild stimulants and as bronchodilators, notably in the treatment of asthma or influenza symptoms. Within humans, xanthine participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, xanthine can be biosynthesized from guanine; which is mediated by the enzyme guanine deaminase. In addition, xanthine and ribose 1-phosphate can be biosynthesized from xanthosine through the action of the enzyme purine nucleoside phosphorylase. In humans and other primates, xanthine can be converted to uric acid by the action of the xanthine oxidase enzyme. People with rare genetic disorders, specifically xanthinuria and Lesch‚ÄìNyhan syndrome, lack sufficient xanthine oxidase and cannot convert xanthine to uric acid. Individuals with xanthinuria have unusually high concentrations of xanthine in their blood and urine, which can lead to health problems such as renal failure and xanthine kidney stones. Individuals with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome have a deficiency of the enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGPRT). The HGPRT deficiency causes a build-up of uric acid in all body fluids. This results in both high levels of uric acid in the blood and urine, associated with severe gout and kidney problems. Neurological signs include poor muscle control and moderate intellectual disability.
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
all-trans-Retinoic acid is an isomer of retinoic acid, the oxidized form of vitamin A. Retinoic acid functions in determining position along embryonic anterior/posterior axis in chordates. It acts through Hox genes, which ultimately controls anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages (PMID:17495912). It is an important regulator of gene expression during growth and development, and in neoplasms. As a drug, all-trans-retinoic acid is known as tretinoin. Tretinoin is derived from maternal vitamin A and is essential for normal growth and embryonic development. An excess of tretinoin can be teratogenic. Tretinoin is used in the treatment of psoriasis, acne vulgaris, and several other skin diseases. It has also been approved for use in promyelocytic leukemia (leukemia, promyelocytic, acute).
Flavouring compound [Flavornet]
LysoPC(17:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(17:0), in particular, consists of one chain of margaric acid at the C-1 position. The margaric acid moiety is derived from butter, milk and fat of ruminants. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
3-Methyladipic acid is a metabolite of the catabolism of phytanic acid. Patients with adult Refsums disease (ARD) are unable to detoxify phytanic acid by alpha-oxidation, and so the w-oxidation pathway is the only metabolic pathway available for phytanic acid degradation. This pathway produces 3-methyladipic acid as the final metabolite, which is excreted in the urine (Wanders et al. 2001). Activity of the w-oxidation pathway is approximately doubled in ARD patients compared with normal individuals (PMID: 11948235).
Hippuric acid is an acyl glycine formed from the conjugation of benzoic acid with glycine. Acyl glycines are produced through the action of glycine N-acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.13) which is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: acyl-CoA + glycine < -- > CoA + N-acylglycine. Hippuric acid is a normal component of urine and is typically increased with increased consumption of phenolic compounds (tea, wine, fruit juices). These phenols are converted into benzoic acid which is then converted into hippuric acid and excreted in the urine. Hippuric acid is the most frequently used biomarker in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to toluene. This product of solvent biotransformation may be also found in the urine of individuals who have not been exposed to the solvent. A smaller fraction of the absorbed toluene is oxidized into aromatic compounds including ortho-cresol, which is not found in the urine of nonexposed individuals in a significant amount. The concentration of hippuric acid in the urine of individuals exposed to a low toluene concentration does not differ from that of individuals not exposed to the solvent. This has led to the conclusion that hippuric acid should not be utilized in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to low levels of toluene in the air. Protein-bound organic acids such as hippuric acid are markedly accumulated in uremic plasma and produce defective protein binding of drugs (PMID: 9120876 , 8734460). Hippuric acid has been identified as a uremic toxin according to the European Uremic Toxin Working Group (PMID: 22626821). Hippuric acid is also found to be associated with phenylketonuria, propionic acidemia, and tyrosinemia I, which are inborn errors of metabolism. Hippuric acid is an endogenous phenolic acid metabolite detected after the consumption of whole grain.
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid that is benzoic acid with a hydroxy group at the ortho position. It is obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has a role as an antiinfective agent, an antifungal agent, a keratolytic drug, an EC 1.11.1.11 (L-ascorbate peroxidase) inhibitor, a plant metabolite, an algal metabolite and a plant hormone. It is a conjugate acid of a salicylate. It is a colorless solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. Salicylic acid modulates COX1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Salicylic acid works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor. The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis. Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana, it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
N-Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is present in the tissues of most mammals. It was initially described as an agonist of the type 2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2), although it is now universally recognized that PEA is in fact incapable of binding to cannabinoid receptors, or at least not to the known receptors. In addition to its anti-inflammatory activity, PEA also produces analgesia, neuroprotection, and possesses anti-epileptic properties. It also reduces gastrointestinal motility and cancer cell proliferation, as well as protecting the vascular endothelium in the ischemic heart. The physiological stimuli that regulate PEA levels in mammalian tissues are largely unknown, however, multiple studies indicate that this lipid accumulates during cellular stress, particularly following tissue injury. For example, PEA increases post-mortem in the pig brain. Similar elevations in PEA levels have been observed in the ischemic brain and PEA is also up-regulated in response to ultraviolet-B irradiation in mouse epidermal cells. Adipose tissue is highly implicated in the systemic secretion of IL-6 and leptin, and human mature adipocytes are able to secrete large quantity of PEA. Human adipose tissue can be subjected to modulation of its inflammatory state by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS strongly inhibits adipose cell leptin release, with PEA acting as a potentiator of this inhibitory effect. These actions are not linked to a reduction in leptin gene transcription. Thus, PEA does not have an anti-inflammatory role in the secretion of IL-6 via NFkappaB at the adipocyte level, but instead seems to act at the heart of the LPS-stimulated pathway, which, independently of NFkappaB, inhibits the secretion of leptin. (PMID: 16884908).
Glycohyocholic acid (GHCA) is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Pseudouridine, also known as psi-uridine or 5-ribosyluracil, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. These are analogues of nucleosides and nucleotides, such as phosphonated nucleosides, C-glycosylated nucleoside bases, analogues where the sugar unit is a pyranose, and carbocyclic nucleosides.  Pseudouridine specifically has its uracil attached via a carbon-carbon instead of a nitrogen-carbon glycosidic bond to the ribofuranose.  It is the most prevalent of the over one hundred different modified nucleosides found in RNA (PMID: 17113994).  Pseudouridine is a solid that is soluble in water.  Pseudouridine exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans, and is in all classes of RNA except mRNA.  It is formed by enzymes called pseudouridine synthases, which post-transcriptionally isomerize specific uridine residues in RNA.
Isoquercitrin is found in alcoholic beverages. Isoquercitrin occurs widely in plants. Isoquercitrin is present in red wine.Isoquercitin can be isolated from mangoes and from Rheum nobile, the Noble rhubarb or Sikkim rhubarb, a giant herbaceous plant native to the Himalaya. Quercetin glycosides are also present in tea. (Wikipedia
LysoPC(18:0) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:0), in particular, consists of one chain of stearic acid at the C-1 position. The stearic acid moiety is derived from animal fats, coco butter and sesame oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid, also known as (o-hydroxyphenyl)acetate or 2-hydroxybenzeneacetic acid, is a member of the class of compounds known as 2(hydroxyphenyl)acetic acids. 2(Hydroxyphenyl)acetic acids are phenylacetic acids that carry a hydroxyl group at the 2-position. ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is slightly soluble (in water) and a weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid can be found in a number of food items such as natal plum, lemon verbena, half-highbush blueberry, and parsley, which makes ortho-hydroxyphenylacetic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid can be found primarily in blood, feces, and urine. Moreover, ortho-hydroxyphenylacetic acid is found to be associated with phenylketonuria, which is an inborn error of metabolism. ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is a substrate of the enzyme oxidoreductases (EC 1.14.13.-) in the pathway styrene degradation (KEGG). ortho-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is also a microbial metabolite.
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Cystathionine is a dipeptide formed by serine and homocysteine. Cystathioninuria is a prominent manifestation of vitamin-B6 deficiency. The transsulfuration of methionine yields homocysteine, which combines with serine to form cystathionine, the proximate precursor of cysteine through the enzymatic activity of cystathionase. In conditions in which cystathionine gamma-synthase or cystathionase is deficient, for example, there is cystathioninuria. Although cystathionine has not been detected in normal human serum or plasma by most conventional methods, gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric methodology detected a mean concentration of cystathionine in normal human serum of 140 nM, with a range of 65 to 301 nM. Cystathionine concentrations in CSF have been 10, 1, and 0.5 uM, and "not detected". Only traces (i.e., <1 uM) of cystathionine are present in normal CSF.587. Gamma-cystathionase deficiency (also known as Cystathioninuria), which is an autosomal recessive disorder (NIH: 2428), provided the first instance in which, in a human, the major biochemical abnormality due to a defined enzyme defect was clearly shown to be alleviated by administration of large doses of pyridoxine. The response in gamma-cystathionase-deficient patients is not attributable to correction of a preexisting deficiency of this vitamin (OMMBID, Chap. 88).
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) is an essential fatty acid and the most abundant &#969;-3 fatty acid in neural tissues, especially in the retina and brain. Docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (DHEA) is the ethanolamine amide of DHA that has been detected in both brain and retina at concentrations similar to those for arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA).1,2 A 9.5 fold increase of DHEA was observed in brain lipid extracts from piglets fed a diet supplemented with DHA compared to a control diet without DHA.3 DHEA binds to the rat brain CB1 receptor with a Ki of 324 nM, which is approximately 10-fold higher than the Ki for AEA.4 DHEA inhibits shaker-related voltage-gated potassium channels in brain slightly better than AEA, with an IC50 of 1.5 ¬µM.
3-Methyladipic acid is a metabolite of the catabolism of phytanic acid. Patients with adult Refsums disease (ARD) are unable to detoxify phytanic acid by alpha-oxidation, and so the w-oxidation pathway is the only metabolic pathway available for phytanic acid degradation. This pathway produces 3-methyladipic acid as the final metabolite, which is excreted in the urine (Wanders et al. 2001). Activity of the w-oxidation pathway is approximately doubled in ARD patients compared with normal individuals (PMID: 11948235).
m-Methylhippuric (m-MHA)acid is the principal metabolite of m-xylene. Most of the m-xylene inhaled by workers will be excreted in urine as m-MHA.
Ribothymidine is an endogenous methylated nucleoside found in human fluids; methylated purine bases are present in higher amounts in tumor-bearing patients compared to healthy controls.DNA hypermethylation is a common finding in malignant cells and has been explored as a therapeutic target for hypomethylating agents. When chemical bonds to DNA, the DNA becomes damaged and proper and complete replication cannot occur to make the normal intended cell. A DNA adduct is an abnormal piece of DNA covalently-bonded to a cancer-causing chemical. This has shown to be the start of a cancerous cell, or carcinogenesis. DNA adducts in scientific experiments are used as bio-markers and as such are themselves measured to reflect quantitatively, for comparison, the amount of cancer in the subject. (PMID:3506820, 17044778, 17264127, 16799933).
alpha-Linolenoyl ethanolamide is a N-acylethanolamine. N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) constitute a class of lipid compounds naturally present in both animal and plant membranes as constituents of the membrane-bound phospholipid, N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). NAPE is composed of a third fatty acid moiety linked to the amino head group of the commonly occurring membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylethanolamine. NAEs are released from NAPE by phospholipase D-type hydrolases in response to a variety of stimuli. Transient NAE release and accumulation has been attributed a variety of biological activities, including neurotransmission, membrane protection, and immunomodulation in animals. N-oleoylethanolamine is an inhibitor of the sphingolipid signaling pathway, via specific ceramidase inhibition (ceramidase converts ceramide to sphingosine). N-oleoylethanolamine blocks the effects of TNF- and arachidonic acid on intracellular Ca concentration. (PMID: 12692337, 12056855, 12560208, 11997249).
Glycoursodeoxycholic acid is an acyl glycine and a bile acid-glycine conjugate. It is a secondary bile acid produced by the action of enzymes existing in the microbial flora of the colonic environment. In hepatocytes, both primary and secondary bile acids undergo amino acid conjugation at the C-24 carboxylic acid on the side chain, and almost all bile acids in the bile duct therefore exist in a glycine conjugated form (PMID: 16949895). Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
Homovanillic acid (HVA), also known as homovanillate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. HVA is also classified as a catechol.  HVA is a major catecholamine metabolite that is produced by a consecutive action of monoamine oxidase and catechol-O-methyltransferase on dopamine. HVA is typically elevated in patients with catecholamine-secreting tumors (such as neuroblastoma, pheochromocytoma, and other neural crest tumors). HVA levels are also used in monitoring patients who have been treated for these kinds tumors. HVA levels may also be altered in disorders of catecholamine metabolism such as monoamine oxidase-A (MOA) deficiency. MOA deficiency can cause decreased urinary HVA values, while a deficiency of dopamine beta-hydrolase (the enzyme that converts dopamine to norepinephrine) can cause elevated urinary HVA values. Within humans, HVA participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, HVA and pyrocatechol can be biosynthesized from 3,4-dihydroxybenzeneacetic acid and guaiacol. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme known as catechol O-methyltransferase. In addition, HVA can be biosynthesized from homovanillin through the action of the enzyme known aldehyde dehydrogenase. HVA has recently been found in a number of beers and appears to arise from the fermentation process (https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.1999.0593). HVA is also a metabolite of Bifidobacterium (PMID: 24958563) and the bacterial breakdown of dietary flavonoids. Dietary flavonols commonly found in tomatoes, onions, and tea, can lead to significantly elevated levels of urinary HVA (PMID: 20933512). Likewise, the microbial digestion of hydroxytyrosol (found in olive oil) can also lead to elevated levels of HVA in humans (PMID: 11929304).
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide (NAM), is a form of vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. Niacinamide belongs to the class of organic compounds known as nicotinamides. These are heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing a pyridine ring substituted at position 3 by a carboxamide group. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. The structure of nicotinamide consists of a pyridine ring to which a primary amide group is attached in the meta position. It is an amide of nicotinic acid. As an aromatic compound, it undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions and transformations of its two functional groups. Niacinamide and phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate can be converted into nicotinic acid mononucleotide and phosphate by the enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase. In humans, niacinamide is involved in the metabolic disorder called the nad+ signalling pathway (cancer). Niacinamide is an odorless tasting compound. Outside of the human body, niacinamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common sages, cow milk, and cocoa beans and in a lower concentration in common pea. Niacinamide has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as yardlong beans, roselles, apples, oyster mushrooms, and swiss chards. Niacinamide occurs in trace amounts mainly in meat, fish, nuts, and mushrooms, as well as to a lesser extent in some vegetables. It is commonly added to cereals and other foods. Many multivitamins contain 20–30 mg of vitamin B3 and it is also available in higher doses. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake.
Isovaleric acid, is a natural fatty acid found in a wide variety of plants and essential oils. Isovaleric acid is clear colorless liquid that is sparingly soluble in water, but well soluble in most common organic solvents. It has been suggested that isovaleric acid from pilot whales, a species frequently consumed in the Faroe Islands, may be the unusual dietary factor in prolonged gestation in the population of the Faroe Islands. Previous studies suggested that was due to the high intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids has been, but fatty acid data for eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) in blood lipids of Faroese and Norwegians was reviewed in terms of the type of fish eaten (mostly lean white fish with DHA much greater than EPA); the popular lean fish, thus, probably provides too little EPA to produce a marked effect on human biochemistry (PMID 2646392). Isovaleric acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Isoquercitrin is found in alcoholic beverages. Isoquercitrin occurs widely in plants. Isoquercitrin is present in red wine.Isoquercitin can be isolated from mangoes and from Rheum nobile, the Noble rhubarb or Sikkim rhubarb, a giant herbaceous plant native to the Himalaya. Quercetin glycosides are also present in tea. (Wikipedia
Sinapic acid, also known as sinapinate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids are compounds containing an cinnamic acid where the benzene ring is hydroxylated. Sinapic acid has been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as strawberry guava, purple lavers, common verbena, ryes, and lupines. This could make sinapic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. A sinapic acid in which the double bond has trans-configuration.
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 essential fatty acid. Chemically, DHA is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis- double bonds with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. DHA is most often found in fish oil. It is a major fatty acid in sperm and brain phospholipids, especially in the retina. Dietary DHA can reduce the level of blood triglycerides in humans, which may reduce the risk of heart disease (Wikipedia). Docosahexaenoic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
13-Methylmyristic acid (CAS# 2485-71-4), also known as 13-methyltetradecanoic acid, iso-pentadecanoic acid, 13-methyltetradecanoic acid, 13-MTD, or 13-MTDA, is an iso-fatty acid. It is used to study the induction of mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis via the AKT and MAPK pathways. 13-MTDA is used for the biosynthesis of methyl-branched polyhydroxyalkanoates
12-Ketodeoxycholic acid is a bile acid. Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals. The distinction between different bile acids is minute, depending only on the presence or absence of hydroxyl groups on positions 3, 7, and 12. Bile acids are physiological detergents that facilitate excretion, absorption, and transport of fats and sterols in the intestine and liver. Bile acids are also steroidal amphipathic molecules derived from the catabolism of cholesterol. They modulate bile flow and lipid secretion, are essential for the absorption of dietary fats and vitamins, and have been implicated in the regulation of all the key enzymes involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Bile acids recirculate through the liver, bile ducts, small intestine and portal vein to form an enterohepatic circuit. They exist as anions at physiological pH and, consequently, require a carrier for transport across the membranes of the enterohepatic tissues. The unique detergent properties of bile acids are essential for the digestion and intestinal absorption of hydrophobic nutrients. Bile acids have potent toxic properties (e.g. membrane disruption) and there are a plethora of mechanisms to limit their accumulation in blood and tissues (PMID: 11316487, 16037564, 12576301, 11907135).
1-Methyladenosine, also known as M1A, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as purine nucleosides. Purine nucleosides are compounds comprising a purine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety. Precise m6A mapping by m6A-CLIP/IP (briefly m6A-CLIP) revealed that a majority of m6A locates in the last exon of mRNAs in multiple tissues/cultured cells of mouse and human, and the m6A enrichment around stop codons is a coincidence that many stop codons locate round the start of last exons where m6A is truly enriched. The methylation of adenosine is directed by a large m6A methyltransferase complex containing METTL3 as the SAM-binding sub-unit. Insulin-like growth factor-2 mRNA-binding proteins 1, 2, and 3 (IGF2BP1-3) are reported as a novel class of m6A readers.
Lithocholyltaurine is a bile salt formed in the liver from lithocholic acid conjugation with taurine, usually as the sodium salt. It solubilizes fats for absorption and is itself absorbed. Lithocholic acid, a hydrophobic secondary bile acid, is well known to cause intrahepatic cholestasis. There have been extensive studies on the mechanisms of lithocholate-induced cholestasis in animals. Lithocholate diminishes both the bile acid-dependent and independent bile flow. In humans, elevated levels of lithocholic acid are found in patients with chronic cholestatic liver disease. Lithocholyltaurine impairs both the bile canalicular contractions and the canalicular bile secretion, possibly by acting directly on the canalicular membranes in lithocholyltaurine-induced cholestasis. Lithocholyltaurine induce acute cholestasis-associated with retrieval of the bile salt export pump. The bile salt export pump (BSEP) of hepatocyte secretes conjugated bile salts across the canalicular membrane in an ATP-dependent manner. Hepatic retention of bile acids may lead to liver injury by hepatocyte apoptosis and eventually deterioration of cholestatic liver diseases. One mechanism of induced apoptosis by lithocholyltaurine is the induction of transcriptional activity of AP-1 (activation protein-1). (PMID: 16981261, 15763547, 16332456, 18164257).
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is a rutin metabolite and an antioxidant. It has a protective biological activity in human. It is a substrate of enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase [EC 1.14.13.3] in the pathway tyrosine metabolism (KEGG, PMID 155437). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid is found to be associated with phenylketonuria, which is an inborn error of metabolism. It is also a marker of gut Clostridium species. Higher levels are associated with higher levels of Clostridia (PMID: 27123458). 3-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid can also be found in Klebsiella (PMID: 1851804).
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
5-Methylcytidine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrimidine nucleosides. Pyrimidine nucleosides are compounds comprising a pyrimidine base attached to a ribosyl or deoxyribosyl moiety.
4-Hydroxycinnamic acid, also known as p-Coumaric acid, is a coumaric acid in which the hydroxy substituent is located at C-4 of the phenyl ring. It has a role as a plant metabolite. It is a conjugate acid of a 4-coumarate. p-coumaric acid is an organic compound that is a hydroxy derivative of cinnamic acid. There are three isomers of coumaric acid: o-coumaric acid, m-coumaric acid, and p-coumaric acid, that differ by the position of the hydroxy substitution of the phenyl group. p-Coumaric acid is the most abundant isomer of the three in nature. p-Coumaric acid exists in two forms trans-p-coumaric acid and cis-p-coumaric acid. It is a crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and diethyl ether. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxycinnamic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids are compounds containing an cinnamic acid where the benzene ring is hydroxylated. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid exists in all living species, ranging from bacteria to humans. Outside of the human body, 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as pepper (Capsicum frutescens), pineapples, and sunflowers and in a lower concentration in spinachs, kiwis, and sweet oranges. 4-Hydroxycinnamic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as wild rices, soursops, garden onions, hyssops, and avocado.
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid, also known as alpha-hydroxybenzoylglycine or a-hydroxyhippate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hippuric acids. Hippuric acids are compounds containing hippuric acid, which consists of a of a benzoyl group linked to the N-terminal of a glycine. Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid (or Benzamidohydroxyacetic acid) is a carboxylic acid occasionally present in human biofluids. Alpha-hydroxyhippuric acid should not be confused with 2-hydroxyhippuric acid. It is used in the formulation of some herbicides and inks to enhance their action (Patents US 1996-657134, US 1975-627965). It is a substrate for the enzyme peptidyl-alpha-hydroxyglycine alpha-amidating lyase. Alpha-Hydroxyhippuric acid (or Benzamidohydroxyacetic acid) is a hippuric acid derivative that is occasionally present in human biofluids.
Suberic acid, also octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid, with formula C6H12(COOH)2. It is present in the urine of patients with fatty acid oxidation disorders (PMID 10404733). A metabolic breakdown product derived from oleic acid. Elevated levels of this unstaruated dicarboxylic acid are found in individuals with medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD). Suberic acid is also found to be associated with carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency, malonyl-Coa decarboxylase deficiency, which are also inborn errors of metabolism.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Taxifolin, also known as dihydroquercetin or (+)-taxifolin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavanonols. Flavanonols are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a hydroxyl group and a ketone at the carbon C2 and C3, respectively. Taxifolin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Taxifolin can be found in a number of food items such as sweet rowanberry, arrowroot, evening primrose, and walnut, which makes taxifolin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Taxifolin is a flavanonol, a type of flavonoid .
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
Tricosanoic acid, also known as N-tricosanoate or 22FA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tricosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tricosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Linoelaidic acid is an isomer of linoleic acid, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a derivative of a fatty acid linoleic acid. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)], have been studied extensively due to their ability to modulate cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune function and diabetes in a variety of experimental models. CLA's ability to modulate human obesity remains controversial because data from clinical trials using mixed isomers are conflicting. (PMID 10759137). Trans fatty acids are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils.
Desmethylxanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Desmethylxanthohumol is a constituent of Humulus lupulus (hops)
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Myricetin, also known as cannabiscetin or myricetol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, myricetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. A hexahydroxyflavone that is flavone substituted by hydroxy groups at positions 3, 3', 4', 5, 5' and 7. Myricetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Myricetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common walnuts, carobs, and fennels and in a lower concentration in welsh onions, yellow bell peppers, and jutes. Myricetin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as napa cabbages, sesames, mixed nuts, lichee, and garden cress.
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
(S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is found in alcoholic beverages. (S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops).
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is found in sweet orange. Intensely sweet, 612 times more sweet than sucrose. Acceptable daily intake: 5 mg/kg (1987). Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is a permitted in EU at low concs. (=10 ppm) for certain applications, e.g. low-alcohol beer. Generally recognised as safe (GRAS) in the USA. Practical use limited by slow development of taste sensation and peculiar aftertaste Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, sometimes abbreviated to neohesperidin DC or simply NHDC, is an artificial sweetener derived from citrus. The European Union approved NHDC's use as a sweetener in 1994. It has not been approved as a sweetener in the United States. It is sometimes said that NHDC is considered a Generally Recognized as Safe flavour enhancer by the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers' Association, which is a trade group with no legal standing. NHDC has never appeared on the FDA's GRAS listing
5-methoxysalicylic acid is a methoxysalicylic acid that is salicylic acid which is carrying a methoxy group at position 5. It has a role as a bacterial metabolite and a human urinary metabolite. 5-Methoxysalicylic acid is also known as 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoate or 5-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzoate and belongs to the class of organic compounds known as m-methoxybenzoic acids and derivatives. These are benzoic acids in which the hydrogen atom at position 3 of the benzene ring is replaced by a methoxy group. Outside of the human body, 5-Methoxysalicylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in herbs and spices and tea.
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
Ent-gallocatechin, also known as (2s,3r)-flavan-3,3',4',5,5',7-hexol or (2s,3r)-gallocatechin, is a member of the class of compounds known as epigallocatechins. Epigallocatechins are compounds containing epigallocatechin or a derivative. Epigallocatechin is a flavan-3-ol containing a benzopyran-3,5,7-triol linked to a 3,4,5-hydroxyphenyl moiety. Ent-gallocatechin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Ent-gallocatechin can be found in common grape and tea, which makes ent-gallocatechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Bovinic acid is a conjugated linoleic acid, present in human adipose tissue; the amount of bovinic acid in humans is significantly related to milk fat intake. Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are a group of naturally occurring fatty acids present mainly in fats from ruminants. Milk contains over 20 isomers of CLA but the predominant one is cis-9,trans-11-CLA (bovinic acid). Biomedical studies with animal models have shown that this isomer has anticarcinogenic and anti-atherogenic activities. Bovinic acid is produced as an intermediate in the rumen biohydrogenation of linoleic acid but not of linolenic acid. However, it is only a transient intermediate, and the major source of milk fat CLA is from endogenous synthesis (PMID: 10393134, 15736916).
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
Chrysoeriol, also known as 3'-O-methylluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 3'-O-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C3' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, chrysoeriol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Chrysoeriol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Chrysoeriol is a bitter-tasting compound. Outside of the human body, chrysoeriol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as wild celeries, ryes, hard wheat, alfalfa, and triticales. This could make chrysoeriol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Silicristin is found in coffee and coffee products. Silicristin is isolated from fruits of Silybum marianum (milk thistle).
Tetracosanoic acid is a C24 straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It has a role as a volatile oil component, a plant metabolite, a human metabolite and a Daphnia tenebrosa metabolite. It is a very long-chain fatty acid and a straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a tetracosanoate. Tetracosanoic acid, also known as N-tetracosanoate or lignoceric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tetracosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tetracosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
Ent-gallocatechin, also known as (2s,3r)-flavan-3,3',4',5,5',7-hexol or (2s,3r)-gallocatechin, is a member of the class of compounds known as epigallocatechins. Epigallocatechins are compounds containing epigallocatechin or a derivative. Epigallocatechin is a flavan-3-ol containing a benzopyran-3,5,7-triol linked to a 3,4,5-hydroxyphenyl moiety. Ent-gallocatechin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Ent-gallocatechin can be found in common grape and tea, which makes ent-gallocatechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
LysoPE(18:2(9Z,12Z)/0:0) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
2-Aminobenzoic acid, also known as anthranilic acid or O-aminobenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as aminobenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids containing an amine group attached to the benzene moiety. Within humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 2-aminobenzoic acid and formic acid can be biosynthesized from formylanthranilic acid through its interaction with the enzyme kynurenine formamidase. In addition, 2-aminobenzoic acid and L-alanine can be biosynthesized from L-kynurenine through its interaction with the enzyme kynureninase. It is a substrate of enzyme 2-Aminobenzoic acid hydroxylase in benzoate degradation via hydroxylation pathway (KEGG). In humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid is involved in tryptophan metabolism. Outside of the human body, 2-Aminobenzoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mamey sapotes, prairie turnips, rowals, natal plums, and hyacinth beans. This could make 2-aminobenzoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 2-Aminobenzoic acid is a is a tryptophan-derived uremic toxin with multidirectional properties that can affect the hemostatic system. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma.
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Conjugated linoleic acid is an integral term for the mixture of positional and geometrical isomers of the octadecadienoic acids, whose two double-bonds are separated with one single-bond. The most common isomers are cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12. Conjugated linoleic acid is present in the food namely in the red meat and dairy products which the contemporary dietary recommendations tend to limit. Those limitations should be compensated with dietary supplements. Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. Diet composition may modulate CLA effects on body fat accumulation. As far as human studies are concerned, a specific dietary pattern has not been established. As a result differences among studies and also among subjects in the same study are likely. In rodents, the effects of CLA vary with genotype, suggesting that genetic predisposition to fat accumulation can play an important role in the effectiveness of CLA. Human volunteers with different body mass index have participated in the published studies and even in the same experiment. So, differences in lipid metabolism among subjects could help to explain the discrepancies observed in the literature. Age and maturity may also be crucial. (PMID: 17053429, 17217167, 17554969, 16477173).
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Tetracosanoic acid is a C24 straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It has a role as a volatile oil component, a plant metabolite, a human metabolite and a Daphnia tenebrosa metabolite. It is a very long-chain fatty acid and a straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a tetracosanoate. Tetracosanoic acid, also known as N-tetracosanoate or lignoceric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tetracosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tetracosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Linoelaidic acid is an isomer of linoleic acid, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a derivative of a fatty acid linoleic acid. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)], have been studied extensively due to their ability to modulate cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune function and diabetes in a variety of experimental models. CLA's ability to modulate human obesity remains controversial because data from clinical trials using mixed isomers are conflicting. (PMID 10759137). Trans fatty acids are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Gentisic acid, also known as gentisate or 2,5-dioxybenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives are compounds containing a hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxyl and a hydroxyl groups. Gentisic acid is also classified as a dihydroxybenzoic acid.  It is a derivative of benzoic acid and a minor (1%) product of the metabolic break down of aspirin, which is excreted by the kidneys. Gentisic acid is found in essentially all organisms ranging from bacteria to fungi to plants to animals. Gentisic acid has been associated with a number of useful effects on human health and exhibits anti-inflammatory, antigenotoxic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and especially antioxidant activities (PMID: 31825145). It is widely distributed in plants as a secondary plant product such as Gentiana spp., Citrus spp., Vitis vinifera, Pterocarpus santalinus, Helianthus tuberosus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Olea europaea, and Sesamum indicum and in fruits such as avocados, batoko plum, kiwi fruits, apple, bitter melon, black berries, pears, and some mushrooms (PMID: 31825145). Gentisic acid is found in higher concentrations in a number of foods such as tarragons, common thymes, and common sages and in a lower concentration in grape wines, rosemaries, and sweet marjorams. Gentisic acid has also been shown to act as a pathogen-inducible signal for the activation of plant defenses in tomato plants and cucumbers (PMID: 16321412; https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI.1999.12.3.227).
3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is found in chickpea. 3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is isolated from Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Behenic acid, also docosanoic acid, is a normal carboxylic acid, a fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. It is an important constituent of the behen oil extracted from the seeds of the Ben-oil tree, and it is so named from the Persian month Bahman when the roots of this tree were harvested. Behenic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID:32033212).
LysoPE(0:0/18:2(9Z,12Z)) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
5-Hydroxyflavone is found in pulses. 5-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of Medicago sativa.
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
Linoelaidic acid is an isomer of linoleic acid, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a derivative of a fatty acid linoleic acid. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)], have been studied extensively due to their ability to modulate cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune function and diabetes in a variety of experimental models. CLA's ability to modulate human obesity remains controversial because data from clinical trials using mixed isomers are conflicting. (PMID 10759137). Trans fatty acids are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde, also known as protocatechuic aldehyde, is a phenolic aldehyde, a compound released from cork stoppers into wine. This molecule can be used as a precursor in vanillin synthesis via biotransformation by cell cultures of Capsicum frutescens, a type of chili pepper. It is also found in the mushroom Phellinus linteus (Wikipedia).
Umbelliferone is found in anise. Umbelliferone occurs widely in plants including Angelica species Phytoalexin of infected sweet potat
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
Quercitrin, also known as quercimelin or quercitronic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. These are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. A quercetin O-glycoside that is quercetin substituted by a alpha-L-rhamnosyl moiety at position 3 via a glycosidic linkage. Quercitrin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Quercitrin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as lingonberries, american cranberries, and olives and in a lower concentration in common beans, tea, and welsh onions. Quercitrin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as guava, bilberries, common pea, apricots, and spearmints.
Chrysoeriol, also known as 3'-O-methylluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 3'-O-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C3' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, chrysoeriol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Chrysoeriol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Chrysoeriol is a bitter-tasting compound. Outside of the human body, chrysoeriol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as wild celeries, ryes, hard wheat, alfalfa, and triticales. This could make chrysoeriol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde, also known as protocatechuic aldehyde, is a phenolic aldehyde, a compound released from cork stoppers into wine. This molecule can be used as a precursor in vanillin synthesis via biotransformation by cell cultures of Capsicum frutescens, a type of chili pepper. It is also found in the mushroom Phellinus linteus (Wikipedia).
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
Ent-gallocatechin, also known as (2s,3r)-flavan-3,3',4',5,5',7-hexol or (2s,3r)-gallocatechin, is a member of the class of compounds known as epigallocatechins. Epigallocatechins are compounds containing epigallocatechin or a derivative. Epigallocatechin is a flavan-3-ol containing a benzopyran-3,5,7-triol linked to a 3,4,5-hydroxyphenyl moiety. Ent-gallocatechin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Ent-gallocatechin can be found in common grape and tea, which makes ent-gallocatechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
3'-Hydroxydaidzein is a polyphenol metabolite detected in biological fluids (PMID: 20428313).
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (18:2) in which the two double bonds are conjugated. CLA has been suggested to have effects on human health, including effects on body composition, blood lipids, liver metabolism, insulin sensitivity and immune function, with mixed results. Some reported data suggest that the effects of the substance may be isomer dependent and that cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acids have opposing effects, the later (trans-10,cis-12 CLA) having a relative detrimental effect on blood lipids. (PMID 16477173).
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
3-Hydroxyflavone is found in brassicas. 3-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of cabbage
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Tetracosanoic acid is a C24 straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It has a role as a volatile oil component, a plant metabolite, a human metabolite and a Daphnia tenebrosa metabolite. It is a very long-chain fatty acid and a straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a tetracosanoate. Tetracosanoic acid, also known as N-tetracosanoate or lignoceric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tetracosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tetracosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Ent-gallocatechin, also known as (2s,3r)-flavan-3,3',4',5,5',7-hexol or (2s,3r)-gallocatechin, is a member of the class of compounds known as epigallocatechins. Epigallocatechins are compounds containing epigallocatechin or a derivative. Epigallocatechin is a flavan-3-ol containing a benzopyran-3,5,7-triol linked to a 3,4,5-hydroxyphenyl moiety. Ent-gallocatechin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Ent-gallocatechin can be found in common grape and tea, which makes ent-gallocatechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Prunetin is found in herbs and spices. Prunetin occurs in several Prunus species and Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
(-)-Catechin 3-O-gallate is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Diosmetin is found in citrus. Diosmetin is isolated from peel of lemon (Citrus limon) and other
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
Luteolin 7-glucoside is found in anise. Luteolin 7-glucoside is a constituent of the leaves of Capsicum annuum (red pepper).Cynaroside is a flavone, a flavonoid-like chemical compound. It is a 7-O-glucoside of luteolin and can be found in dandelion coffee, in Ferula varia and F. foetida in Campanula persicifolia and C. rotundifolia and in Cynara scolymus (artichoke)
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Gentisic acid, also known as gentisate or 2,5-dioxybenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives are compounds containing a hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxyl and a hydroxyl groups. Gentisic acid is also classified as a dihydroxybenzoic acid.  It is a derivative of benzoic acid and a minor (1%) product of the metabolic break down of aspirin, which is excreted by the kidneys. Gentisic acid is found in essentially all organisms ranging from bacteria to fungi to plants to animals. Gentisic acid has been associated with a number of useful effects on human health and exhibits anti-inflammatory, antigenotoxic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and especially antioxidant activities (PMID: 31825145). It is widely distributed in plants as a secondary plant product such as Gentiana spp., Citrus spp., Vitis vinifera, Pterocarpus santalinus, Helianthus tuberosus, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Olea europaea, and Sesamum indicum and in fruits such as avocados, batoko plum, kiwi fruits, apple, bitter melon, black berries, pears, and some mushrooms (PMID: 31825145). Gentisic acid is found in higher concentrations in a number of foods such as tarragons, common thymes, and common sages and in a lower concentration in grape wines, rosemaries, and sweet marjorams. Gentisic acid has also been shown to act as a pathogen-inducible signal for the activation of plant defenses in tomato plants and cucumbers (PMID: 16321412; https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI.1999.12.3.227).
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Prunetin is found in herbs and spices. Prunetin occurs in several Prunus species and Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).
(-)-Catechin 3-O-gallate is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
LysoPE(0:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
Myristic acid, also known as tetradecanoic acid or C14:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristic acid (its ester is called myristate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 14 carbons; as such, it is a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as an oily white crystalline solid.  Myristic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals, and is found in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat, as well as coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils.  Industrially, myristic acid is used to synthesize a variety of flavour compounds and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics (Dorland, 28th ed). Within eukaryotic cells, myristic acid is also commonly conjugated to a penultimate N-terminal glycine residue in receptor-associated kinases to confer membrane localization of these enzymes (a post-translational modification called myristoylation via the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase). Myristic acid has a high enough hydrophobicity to allow the myristoylated protein to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells.  Also, this fatty acid is known because it accumulates as fat in the body; however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health (see, for example, PMID: 15936650).  Myristic acid is named after the scientific name for nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
6-Hydroxydaidzein is found in pulses. 6-Hydroxydaidzein is isolated from fermented soybeans (Glycine max
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Myricetin, also known as cannabiscetin or myricetol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, myricetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. A hexahydroxyflavone that is flavone substituted by hydroxy groups at positions 3, 3', 4', 5, 5' and 7. Myricetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Myricetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common walnuts, carobs, and fennels and in a lower concentration in welsh onions, yellow bell peppers, and jutes. Myricetin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as napa cabbages, sesames, mixed nuts, lichee, and garden cress.
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Tetracosanoic acid is a C24 straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It has a role as a volatile oil component, a plant metabolite, a human metabolite and a Daphnia tenebrosa metabolite. It is a very long-chain fatty acid and a straight-chain saturated fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a tetracosanoate. Tetracosanoic acid, also known as N-tetracosanoate or lignoceric acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tetracosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tetracosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
Tridecanoic acid, also known as N-tridecanoate or C13:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Tridecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tridecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
LysoPE(18:2(9Z,12Z)/0:0) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
Desmethylxanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Desmethylxanthohumol is a constituent of Humulus lupulus (hops)
Tricosanoic acid, also known as N-tricosanoate or 22FA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tricosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tricosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (18:2) in which the two double bonds are conjugated. CLA has been suggested to have effects on human health, including effects on body composition, blood lipids, liver metabolism, insulin sensitivity and immune function, with mixed results. Some reported data suggest that the effects of the substance may be isomer dependent and that cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acids have opposing effects, the later (trans-10,cis-12 CLA) having a relative detrimental effect on blood lipids. (PMID 16477173).
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Behenic acid, also docosanoic acid, is a normal carboxylic acid, a fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. It is an important constituent of the behen oil extracted from the seeds of the Ben-oil tree, and it is so named from the Persian month Bahman when the roots of this tree were harvested. Behenic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID:32033212).
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
Prunetin is found in herbs and spices. Prunetin occurs in several Prunus species and Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Isoliquiritigenin is found in pulses. Isoliquiritigenin is isolated from Medicago specie
Vanillic acid is a phenolic acid found in some forms of vanilla and many other plant extracts. It is a flavouring and scent agent that produces a pleasant, creamy odour. It is the intermediate product in the two-step bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillin (J Biotechnol 1996;50(2-3):107-13). Vanillic acid, which is a chlorogenic acid, is an oxidized form of vanillin. It is also an intermediate in the production of vanillin from ferulic acid. Vanillic acid is a metabolic byproduct of caffeic acid and is often found in the urine of humans who have consumed coffee, chocolate, tea, and vanilla-flavoured confectionary. Vanillic acid selectively and specifically inhibits 5'nucleotidase activity (PMID: 16899266). Vanillic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Amycolatopsis, Delftia, and Pseudomonas (PMID: 11152072, 10543794, 11728709, 9579070).
5-Hydroxyflavone is found in pulses. 5-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of Medicago sativa.
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Morin is found in bilberry. Morin is a constituent of various woods, e.g. Morus alba (white mulberry). First isolated in 1830
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt. Trans fat in human milk may depend on trans fat content in food. Its IUPAC name is (11E)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand name is 18:1 trans-11. The name was derived from the Latin vacca (cow). Vaccenic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Vaccenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
Conjugated linoleic acid is an integral term for the mixture of positional and geometrical isomers of the octadecadienoic acids, whose two double-bonds are separated with one single-bond. The most common isomers are cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12. Conjugated linoleic acid is present in the food namely in the red meat and dairy products which the contemporary dietary recommendations tend to limit. Those limitations should be compensated with dietary supplements. Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. Diet composition may modulate CLA effects on body fat accumulation. As far as human studies are concerned, a specific dietary pattern has not been established. As a result differences among studies and also among subjects in the same study are likely. In rodents, the effects of CLA vary with genotype, suggesting that genetic predisposition to fat accumulation can play an important role in the effectiveness of CLA. Human volunteers with different body mass index have participated in the published studies and even in the same experiment. So, differences in lipid metabolism among subjects could help to explain the discrepancies observed in the literature. Age and maturity may also be crucial. (PMID: 17053429, 17217167, 17554969, 16477173).
Henicosanoic acid, also known as N-heneicosanoate or 21:0,is a long-chain fatty acid that is henicosane in which one of the methyl groups has been oxidised to give the corresponding carboxylic acid. It is a straight-chain saturated fatty acid and a long-chain fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a henicosanoate. Heneicosanoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Heneicosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Heneicosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Umbelliferone is found in anise. Umbelliferone occurs widely in plants including Angelica species Phytoalexin of infected sweet potat
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
LysoPC(18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of a-linolenic acid at the C-1 position. The a-linolenic acid moiety is derived from seed oils, especially canola and soybean oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Palmitoleic acid, or (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid (16:1n-7) with the formula CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. Present in all tissues, it is generally found in higher concentrations in the liver. Macadamia oil (Macadamia integrifolia) and sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides) are botanical sources of palmitoleic acid, containing 22 and 40% respectively. Palmitoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is found in citrus. Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is a constituent of Seville orange peel (Citrus aurantium) and other Citrus species Very bitter flavouring agent
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside, also known as nicotiflorin or kaempferol 3-rutinoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside can be found in ginkgo nuts and tea, which makes kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Quercitrin, also known as quercimelin or quercitronic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. These are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. A quercetin O-glycoside that is quercetin substituted by a alpha-L-rhamnosyl moiety at position 3 via a glycosidic linkage. Quercitrin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Quercitrin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as lingonberries, american cranberries, and olives and in a lower concentration in common beans, tea, and welsh onions. Quercitrin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as guava, bilberries, common pea, apricots, and spearmints.
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Quercitrin, also known as quercimelin or quercitronic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. These are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. A quercetin O-glycoside that is quercetin substituted by a alpha-L-rhamnosyl moiety at position 3 via a glycosidic linkage. Quercitrin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Quercitrin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as lingonberries, american cranberries, and olives and in a lower concentration in common beans, tea, and welsh onions. Quercitrin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as guava, bilberries, common pea, apricots, and spearmints.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside can be found in soy bean, which makes kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Tricosanoic acid, also known as N-tricosanoate or 22FA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tricosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tricosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Chrysoeriol, also known as 3'-O-methylluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 3'-O-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C3' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, chrysoeriol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Chrysoeriol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Chrysoeriol is a bitter-tasting compound. Outside of the human body, chrysoeriol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as wild celeries, ryes, hard wheat, alfalfa, and triticales. This could make chrysoeriol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Linoelaidic acid is an isomer of linoleic acid, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a derivative of a fatty acid linoleic acid. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)], have been studied extensively due to their ability to modulate cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune function and diabetes in a variety of experimental models. CLA's ability to modulate human obesity remains controversial because data from clinical trials using mixed isomers are conflicting. (PMID 10759137). Trans fatty acids are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils.
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
gamma-Linolenic acid, also known as 18:3n6 or GLA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as linoleic acids and derivatives. These are derivatives of linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18-carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. gamma-Linolenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. gamma-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid produced in the body as the delta 6-desaturase metabolite of linoleic acid. It is converted into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, a biosynthetic precursor of monoenoic prostaglandins such as PGE1 (PubChem).
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is found in chickpea. 3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is isolated from Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt. Trans fat in human milk may depend on trans fat content in food. Its IUPAC name is (11E)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand name is 18:1 trans-11. The name was derived from the Latin vacca (cow). Vaccenic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Vaccenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Palmitoleic acid, or (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid (16:1n-7) with the formula CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. Present in all tissues, it is generally found in higher concentrations in the liver. Macadamia oil (Macadamia integrifolia) and sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides) are botanical sources of palmitoleic acid, containing 22 and 40% respectively. Palmitoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',6'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Chrysoeriol, also known as 3'-O-methylluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 3'-O-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C3' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, chrysoeriol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Chrysoeriol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Chrysoeriol is a bitter-tasting compound. Outside of the human body, chrysoeriol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as wild celeries, ryes, hard wheat, alfalfa, and triticales. This could make chrysoeriol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside, also known as nicotiflorin or kaempferol 3-rutinoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside can be found in ginkgo nuts and tea, which makes kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Henicosanoic acid, also known as N-heneicosanoate or 21:0,is a long-chain fatty acid that is henicosane in which one of the methyl groups has been oxidised to give the corresponding carboxylic acid. It is a straight-chain saturated fatty acid and a long-chain fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a henicosanoate. Heneicosanoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Heneicosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Heneicosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Myristic acid, also known as tetradecanoic acid or C14:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristic acid (its ester is called myristate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 14 carbons; as such, it is a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as an oily white crystalline solid.  Myristic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals, and is found in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat, as well as coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils.  Industrially, myristic acid is used to synthesize a variety of flavour compounds and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics (Dorland, 28th ed). Within eukaryotic cells, myristic acid is also commonly conjugated to a penultimate N-terminal glycine residue in receptor-associated kinases to confer membrane localization of these enzymes (a post-translational modification called myristoylation via the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase). Myristic acid has a high enough hydrophobicity to allow the myristoylated protein to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells.  Also, this fatty acid is known because it accumulates as fat in the body; however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health (see, for example, PMID: 15936650).  Myristic acid is named after the scientific name for nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
Conjugated linoleic acid is an integral term for the mixture of positional and geometrical isomers of the octadecadienoic acids, whose two double-bonds are separated with one single-bond. The most common isomers are cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12. Conjugated linoleic acid is present in the food namely in the red meat and dairy products which the contemporary dietary recommendations tend to limit. Those limitations should be compensated with dietary supplements. Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. Diet composition may modulate CLA effects on body fat accumulation. As far as human studies are concerned, a specific dietary pattern has not been established. As a result differences among studies and also among subjects in the same study are likely. In rodents, the effects of CLA vary with genotype, suggesting that genetic predisposition to fat accumulation can play an important role in the effectiveness of CLA. Human volunteers with different body mass index have participated in the published studies and even in the same experiment. So, differences in lipid metabolism among subjects could help to explain the discrepancies observed in the literature. Age and maturity may also be crucial. (PMID: 17053429, 17217167, 17554969, 16477173).
6-geranylnaringenin is a member of the class of compounds known as 6-prenylated flavanones. 6-prenylated flavanones are flavanones that features a C5-isoprenoid substituent at the 6-position. 6-geranylnaringenin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-geranylnaringenin can be found in beer, which makes 6-geranylnaringenin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Diosmin is found in green vegetables. Diosmin is isolated from parsle
3'-Hydroxydaidzein is a polyphenol metabolite detected in biological fluids (PMID: 20428313).
Silicristin is found in coffee and coffee products. Silicristin is isolated from fruits of Silybum marianum (milk thistle).
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Myricetin, also known as cannabiscetin or myricetol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, myricetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. A hexahydroxyflavone that is flavone substituted by hydroxy groups at positions 3, 3', 4', 5, 5' and 7. Myricetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Myricetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common walnuts, carobs, and fennels and in a lower concentration in welsh onions, yellow bell peppers, and jutes. Myricetin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as napa cabbages, sesames, mixed nuts, lichee, and garden cress.
Capric acid, also known as decanoic acid is a C10 saturated fatty acid. It is a member of the series of fatty acids found in oils and animal fats. The names of caproic, caprylic, and capric acids are all derived from the word caper (Latin for goat). These fatty acids are light yellowish transparent oily liquids with a sweaty, unpleasant aroma that is reminiscent of goats. Capric acid is used in the manufacture of esters for artificial fruit flavors and perfumes. It is also used as an intermediate in chemical syntheses. Capric acid is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes, lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals. Capric acid occurs naturally in coconut oil (about 10%) and palm kernel oil (about 4%), otherwise it is uncommon in typical seed oils. It is found in the milk of various mammals and to a lesser extent in other animal fats. Capric acid, caproic acid (a C6:0 fatty acid) and caprylic acid (a C8:0 fatty acid) account for about 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat (PMID 16747831). Capric acid may be responsible for the mitochondrial proliferation associated with the ketogenic diet, which may occur via PPARgamma receptor agonism and the targeting of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PMIDL 24383952).
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Norizalpinin is found in apple. Norizalpinin is a constituent of Galanga root (Alpinia officinarum)
3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is found in chickpea. 3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is isolated from Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Diosmetin is found in citrus. Diosmetin is isolated from peel of lemon (Citrus limon) and other
3-Hydroxyflavone is found in brassicas. 3-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of cabbage
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside can be found in soy bean, which makes kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Vanillic acid is a phenolic acid found in some forms of vanilla and many other plant extracts. It is a flavouring and scent agent that produces a pleasant, creamy odour. It is the intermediate product in the two-step bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillin (J Biotechnol 1996;50(2-3):107-13). Vanillic acid, which is a chlorogenic acid, is an oxidized form of vanillin. It is also an intermediate in the production of vanillin from ferulic acid. Vanillic acid is a metabolic byproduct of caffeic acid and is often found in the urine of humans who have consumed coffee, chocolate, tea, and vanilla-flavoured confectionary. Vanillic acid selectively and specifically inhibits 5'nucleotidase activity (PMID: 16899266). Vanillic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Amycolatopsis, Delftia, and Pseudomonas (PMID: 11152072, 10543794, 11728709, 9579070).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Diosmetin is found in citrus. Diosmetin is isolated from peel of lemon (Citrus limon) and other
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
5-methoxysalicylic acid is a methoxysalicylic acid that is salicylic acid which is carrying a methoxy group at position 5. It has a role as a bacterial metabolite and a human urinary metabolite. 5-Methoxysalicylic acid is also known as 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoate or 5-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzoate and belongs to the class of organic compounds known as m-methoxybenzoic acids and derivatives. These are benzoic acids in which the hydrogen atom at position 3 of the benzene ring is replaced by a methoxy group. Outside of the human body, 5-Methoxysalicylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in herbs and spices and tea.
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
Prunetin is found in herbs and spices. Prunetin occurs in several Prunus species and Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).
Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is found in citrus. Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is a constituent of Seville orange peel (Citrus aurantium) and other Citrus species Very bitter flavouring agent
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Pseudobaptigenin is found in herbs and spices. Pseudobaptigenin is isolated from Pisum sativum (pea) and Trifolium pratense (red clover).
(S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is found in alcoholic beverages. (S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops).
Capric acid, also known as decanoic acid is a C10 saturated fatty acid. It is a member of the series of fatty acids found in oils and animal fats. The names of caproic, caprylic, and capric acids are all derived from the word caper (Latin for goat). These fatty acids are light yellowish transparent oily liquids with a sweaty, unpleasant aroma that is reminiscent of goats. Capric acid is used in the manufacture of esters for artificial fruit flavors and perfumes. It is also used as an intermediate in chemical syntheses. Capric acid is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes, lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals. Capric acid occurs naturally in coconut oil (about 10%) and palm kernel oil (about 4%), otherwise it is uncommon in typical seed oils. It is found in the milk of various mammals and to a lesser extent in other animal fats. Capric acid, caproic acid (a C6:0 fatty acid) and caprylic acid (a C8:0 fatty acid) account for about 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat (PMID 16747831). Capric acid may be responsible for the mitochondrial proliferation associated with the ketogenic diet, which may occur via PPARgamma receptor agonism and the targeting of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PMIDL 24383952).
Tridecanoic acid, also known as N-tridecanoate or C13:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Tridecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tridecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Kaempferitrin is found in linden. Kaempferitrin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from the leaves of Hedyotis verticillata.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside can be found in soy bean, which makes kaempferol 3-o-neohesperidoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
Quercetin 4'-glucoside is found in garden onion. Spiraeoside is the 4'-O-glucoside of quercetin. (Wikipedia).
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Quercetin 4'-glucoside is found in garden onion. Spiraeoside is the 4'-O-glucoside of quercetin. (Wikipedia).
6-Hydroxydaidzein is found in pulses. 6-Hydroxydaidzein is isolated from fermented soybeans (Glycine max
Silicristin is found in coffee and coffee products. Silicristin is isolated from fruits of Silybum marianum (milk thistle).
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Norizalpinin is found in apple. Norizalpinin is a constituent of Galanga root (Alpinia officinarum)
(-)-Catechin 3-O-gallate is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
LysoPC(18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of a-linolenic acid at the C-1 position. The a-linolenic acid moiety is derived from seed oils, especially canola and soybean oil. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
Diosmin is found in green vegetables. Diosmin is isolated from parsle
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Behenic acid, also docosanoic acid, is a normal carboxylic acid, a fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. It is an important constituent of the behen oil extracted from the seeds of the Ben-oil tree, and it is so named from the Persian month Bahman when the roots of this tree were harvested. Behenic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID:32033212).
Morin is found in bilberry. Morin is a constituent of various woods, e.g. Morus alba (white mulberry). First isolated in 1830
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Taxifolin, also known as dihydroquercetin or (+)-taxifolin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavanonols. Flavanonols are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a hydroxyl group and a ketone at the carbon C2 and C3, respectively. Taxifolin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Taxifolin can be found in a number of food items such as sweet rowanberry, arrowroot, evening primrose, and walnut, which makes taxifolin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Taxifolin is a flavanonol, a type of flavonoid .
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Quercetin 4'-glucoside is found in garden onion. Spiraeoside is the 4'-O-glucoside of quercetin. (Wikipedia).
Quercetin 4'-glucoside is found in garden onion. Spiraeoside is the 4'-O-glucoside of quercetin. (Wikipedia).
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt. Trans fat in human milk may depend on trans fat content in food. Its IUPAC name is (11E)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand name is 18:1 trans-11. The name was derived from the Latin vacca (cow). Vaccenic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Vaccenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
6-geranylnaringenin is a member of the class of compounds known as 6-prenylated flavanones. 6-prenylated flavanones are flavanones that features a C5-isoprenoid substituent at the 6-position. 6-geranylnaringenin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-geranylnaringenin can be found in beer, which makes 6-geranylnaringenin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Stearic acid, also known as octadecanoic acid or C18:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Stearic acid (its ester is called stearate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 18 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as a waxy solid.  In terms of its biosynthesis, stearic acid is produced from carbohydrates via the fatty acid synthesis machinery wherein acetyl-CoA contributes two-carbon building blocks, up to the 16-carbon palmitate, via the enzyme complex fatty acid synthase (FA synthase), at which point a fatty acid elongase is needed to further lengthen it.  After synthesis, there are a variety of reactions it may undergo, including desaturation to oleate via stearoyl-CoA desaturase (PMID: 16477801).  Stearic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals.  It is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. For example, it is a component of cocoa butter and shea butter.  It is used as a food additive, in cleaning and personal care products, and in lubricants.  Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means ‚Äòtallow‚Äô or ‚Äòhard fat‚Äô.
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Diosmin is found in green vegetables. Diosmin is isolated from parsle
Isoliquiritigenin is found in pulses. Isoliquiritigenin is isolated from Medicago specie
Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside, also known as nicotiflorin or kaempferol 3-rutinoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-3-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside can be found in ginkgo nuts and tea, which makes kaempferol 3-rhamno-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde, also known as protocatechuic aldehyde, is a phenolic aldehyde, a compound released from cork stoppers into wine. This molecule can be used as a precursor in vanillin synthesis via biotransformation by cell cultures of Capsicum frutescens, a type of chili pepper. It is also found in the mushroom Phellinus linteus (Wikipedia).
Isoeriocitrin, also known as eriodictyol 7-O-neohesperidoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Isoeriocitrin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Isoeriocitrin can be found in lemon, which makes isoeriocitrin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Conjugated linoleic acid is an integral term for the mixture of positional and geometrical isomers of the octadecadienoic acids, whose two double-bonds are separated with one single-bond. The most common isomers are cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12. Conjugated linoleic acid is present in the food namely in the red meat and dairy products which the contemporary dietary recommendations tend to limit. Those limitations should be compensated with dietary supplements. Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. Diet composition may modulate CLA effects on body fat accumulation. As far as human studies are concerned, a specific dietary pattern has not been established. As a result differences among studies and also among subjects in the same study are likely. In rodents, the effects of CLA vary with genotype, suggesting that genetic predisposition to fat accumulation can play an important role in the effectiveness of CLA. Human volunteers with different body mass index have participated in the published studies and even in the same experiment. So, differences in lipid metabolism among subjects could help to explain the discrepancies observed in the literature. Age and maturity may also be crucial. (PMID: 17053429, 17217167, 17554969, 16477173).
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
(-)-Catechin 3-O-gallate is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
(S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is found in alcoholic beverages. (S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops).
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
Hesperetin, also known as prestwick_908 or YSO2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 4'-o-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C4' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, hesperetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Hesperetin also seems to upregulate the LDL receptor. Hesperetin, in the form of its glycoside , is the predominant flavonoid in lemons and oranges. Hesperetin is a drug which is used for lowering cholesterol and, possibly, otherwise favorably affecting lipids. In vitro research also suggests the possibility that hesperetin might have some anticancer effects and that it might have some anti-aromatase activity. Hesperetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Hesperetin is a bitter tasting compound. Hesperetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as limes, persian limes, and sweet oranges and in a lower concentration in pummelo, welsh onions, and lemons. Hesperetin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, carrots, rapinis, hazelnuts, and beers. Hesperetin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits. Hesperetin reduces or inhibits the activity of acyl-coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase genes (ACAT1 and ACAT2) and it reduces microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) activity.
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
Behenic acid, also docosanoic acid, is a normal carboxylic acid, a fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. It is an important constituent of the behen oil extracted from the seeds of the Ben-oil tree, and it is so named from the Persian month Bahman when the roots of this tree were harvested. Behenic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID:32033212).
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
6-geranylnaringenin is a member of the class of compounds known as 6-prenylated flavanones. 6-prenylated flavanones are flavanones that features a C5-isoprenoid substituent at the 6-position. 6-geranylnaringenin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-geranylnaringenin can be found in beer, which makes 6-geranylnaringenin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
3-Hydroxyflavone is found in brassicas. 3-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of cabbage
3'-Hydroxydaidzein is a polyphenol metabolite detected in biological fluids (PMID: 20428313).
Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is found in citrus. Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is a constituent of Seville orange peel (Citrus aurantium) and other Citrus species Very bitter flavouring agent
Morin is found in bilberry. Morin is a constituent of various woods, e.g. Morus alba (white mulberry). First isolated in 1830
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Tricosanoic acid, also known as N-tricosanoate or 22FA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tricosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tricosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is found in chickpea. 3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is isolated from Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
(-)-Catechin 3-O-gallate is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (PMID: 20428313)
6-geranylnaringenin is a member of the class of compounds known as 6-prenylated flavanones. 6-prenylated flavanones are flavanones that features a C5-isoprenoid substituent at the 6-position. 6-geranylnaringenin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-geranylnaringenin can be found in beer, which makes 6-geranylnaringenin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (18:2) in which the two double bonds are conjugated. CLA has been suggested to have effects on human health, including effects on body composition, blood lipids, liver metabolism, insulin sensitivity and immune function, with mixed results. Some reported data suggest that the effects of the substance may be isomer dependent and that cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acids have opposing effects, the later (trans-10,cis-12 CLA) having a relative detrimental effect on blood lipids. (PMID 16477173).
Bovinic acid is a conjugated linoleic acid, present in human adipose tissue; the amount of bovinic acid in humans is significantly related to milk fat intake. Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are a group of naturally occurring fatty acids present mainly in fats from ruminants. Milk contains over 20 isomers of CLA but the predominant one is cis-9,trans-11-CLA (bovinic acid). Biomedical studies with animal models have shown that this isomer has anticarcinogenic and anti-atherogenic activities. Bovinic acid is produced as an intermediate in the rumen biohydrogenation of linoleic acid but not of linolenic acid. However, it is only a transient intermediate, and the major source of milk fat CLA is from endogenous synthesis (PMID: 10393134, 15736916).
Bovinic acid is a conjugated linoleic acid, present in human adipose tissue; the amount of bovinic acid in humans is significantly related to milk fat intake. Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are a group of naturally occurring fatty acids present mainly in fats from ruminants. Milk contains over 20 isomers of CLA but the predominant one is cis-9,trans-11-CLA (bovinic acid). Biomedical studies with animal models have shown that this isomer has anticarcinogenic and anti-atherogenic activities. Bovinic acid is produced as an intermediate in the rumen biohydrogenation of linoleic acid but not of linolenic acid. However, it is only a transient intermediate, and the major source of milk fat CLA is from endogenous synthesis (PMID: 10393134, 15736916).
Palmitoleic acid, or (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid (16:1n-7) with the formula CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. Present in all tissues, it is generally found in higher concentrations in the liver. Macadamia oil (Macadamia integrifolia) and sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides) are botanical sources of palmitoleic acid, containing 22 and 40% respectively. Palmitoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt. Trans fat in human milk may depend on trans fat content in food. Its IUPAC name is (11E)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand name is 18:1 trans-11. The name was derived from the Latin vacca (cow). Vaccenic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Vaccenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
(S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is found in alcoholic beverages. (S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops).
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
Tridecanoic acid, also known as N-tridecanoate or C13:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Tridecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tridecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Palmitoleic acid, or (9Z)-hexadec-9-enoic acid, is an omega-7 monounsaturated fatty acid (16:1n-7) with the formula CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH that is a common constituent of the glycerides of human adipose tissue. Present in all tissues, it is generally found in higher concentrations in the liver. Macadamia oil (Macadamia integrifolia) and sea buckthorn oil (Hippophae rhamnoides) are botanical sources of palmitoleic acid, containing 22 and 40% respectively. Palmitoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Umbelliferone is found in anise. Umbelliferone occurs widely in plants including Angelica species Phytoalexin of infected sweet potat
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Myristic acid, also known as tetradecanoic acid or C14:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristic acid (its ester is called myristate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 14 carbons; as such, it is a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as an oily white crystalline solid.  Myristic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals, and is found in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat, as well as coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils.  Industrially, myristic acid is used to synthesize a variety of flavour compounds and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics (Dorland, 28th ed). Within eukaryotic cells, myristic acid is also commonly conjugated to a penultimate N-terminal glycine residue in receptor-associated kinases to confer membrane localization of these enzymes (a post-translational modification called myristoylation via the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase). Myristic acid has a high enough hydrophobicity to allow the myristoylated protein to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells.  Also, this fatty acid is known because it accumulates as fat in the body; however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health (see, for example, PMID: 15936650).  Myristic acid is named after the scientific name for nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
gamma-Linolenic acid, also known as 18:3n6 or GLA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as linoleic acids and derivatives. These are derivatives of linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18-carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. gamma-Linolenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. gamma-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid produced in the body as the delta 6-desaturase metabolite of linoleic acid. It is converted into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, a biosynthetic precursor of monoenoic prostaglandins such as PGE1 (PubChem).
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid that is benzoic acid with a hydroxy group at the ortho position. It is obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has a role as an antiinfective agent, an antifungal agent, a keratolytic drug, an EC 1.11.1.11 (L-ascorbate peroxidase) inhibitor, a plant metabolite, an algal metabolite and a plant hormone. It is a conjugate acid of a salicylate. It is a colorless solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. Salicylic acid modulates COX1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Salicylic acid works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor. The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis. Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana, it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
LysoPC(18:2(9Z,12Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:2(9Z,12Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of linoleic acid at the C-1 position. The linoleic acid moiety is derived from seed oils. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',4'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',6'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Zapotinin is found in pomes. Zapotinin is a constituent of Casimiroa edulis (Mexican apple)
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
3'-Hydroxydaidzein is a polyphenol metabolite detected in biological fluids (PMID: 20428313).
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
Epicatechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin (cis) forms. Catechin is a tannin peculiar to green and white tea because the black tea oxidation process reduces catechins in black tea. Catechin is a powerful, water soluble polyphenol and antioxidant that is easily oxidized. Several thousand types are available in the plant world. As many as two thousand are known to have a flavon structure and are called flavonoids. Catechin is one of them. Green tea is manufactured from fresh, unfermented tea leaves; the oxidation of catechins is minimal, and hence they are able to serve as antioxidants. Researchers believe that catechin is effective because it easily sticks to proteins, blocking bacteria from adhering to cell walls and disrupting their ability to destroy them. Viruses have hooks on their surfaces and can attach to cell walls. The catechin in green tea prevents viruses from adhering and causing harm. Catechin reacts with toxins created by harmful bacteria (many of which belong to the protein family) and harmful metals such as lead, mercury, chrome, and cadmium. From its NMR espectra, there is a doubt on 2 and 3 atoms configuration. It seems to be that they are in trans position.
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
Capric acid, also known as decanoic acid is a C10 saturated fatty acid. It is a member of the series of fatty acids found in oils and animal fats. The names of caproic, caprylic, and capric acids are all derived from the word caper (Latin for goat). These fatty acids are light yellowish transparent oily liquids with a sweaty, unpleasant aroma that is reminiscent of goats. Capric acid is used in the manufacture of esters for artificial fruit flavors and perfumes. It is also used as an intermediate in chemical syntheses. Capric acid is used in organic synthesis and industrially in the manufacture of perfumes, lubricants, greases, rubber, dyes, plastics, food additives and pharmaceuticals. Capric acid occurs naturally in coconut oil (about 10%) and palm kernel oil (about 4%), otherwise it is uncommon in typical seed oils. It is found in the milk of various mammals and to a lesser extent in other animal fats. Capric acid, caproic acid (a C6:0 fatty acid) and caprylic acid (a C8:0 fatty acid) account for about 15% of the fatty acids in goat milk fat (PMID 16747831). Capric acid may be responsible for the mitochondrial proliferation associated with the ketogenic diet, which may occur via PPARgamma receptor agonism and the targeting of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis (PMIDL 24383952).
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) is the principal catechin in tea from Camellia sinensis, the most consumed beverage worldwide (after water). Depending on brew time and temperature, a single cup of green tea may contain 100-200 mg EGCG. To control the dose of EGCG administered in experimental studies, green tea solids (GTS) or capsules of green tea extract standardized to EGCG content are often employed. However, there is considerable variability in the EGCG content of commercially available dietary supplements, ranging from 12-143% of the tablet or capsule weight. While standardizing tea preparations to EGCG or using highly purified EGCG for research presents an important strategy for the conduct of precise studies as well as the ability to replicate experiments, it is worth noting this approach limits the potential contributions and possible synergy with other bioactive tea ingredients, including caffeine and other flavonoids. Human studies of the bioavailability of green tea catechins reveal these compounds to be poorly absorbed, with <0.1% of ingested catechins appearing in blood. Most ingested EGCG is rapidly cleared from blood with an elimination half-life of {approx}3 h and preferentially excreted via bile to the colon. The growing interest in the role of EGCG in health promotion and disease prevention is reflected by an exponential growth of research publications in this field. (J Am Coll Nutr. 2007 Aug;26(4):362S-365S).
Pseudobaptigenin is found in herbs and spices. Pseudobaptigenin is isolated from Pisum sativum (pea) and Trifolium pratense (red clover).
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Artocarpin is found in breadfruit. Artocarpin is isolated from Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Eupatilin is found in herbs and spices. Eupatilin is isolated from Tanacetum vulgare (tansy
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Aspalathin is found in tea. Aspalathin is a constituent of Aspalathus linearis (rooibos) Aspalathin is a C-linked dihydrochalcone glycoside and flavonoid found in rooibos, a common herbal tea. (Aspalathus linearis). Aspalathin is a chalcone and has shown antimutagenic, and antioxidant properties
3-Hydroxyflavone is found in brassicas. 3-Hydroxyflavone is a constituent of cabbage
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fatty acid (the trans isomer of palmitoleic acid). Trans fatty acids are known to cause changes in plasma lipids and lipoprotein phenotypes, but the mechanisms involved are unknown. The major dietary sources of trans fatty acids are partly hydrogenated vegetable oils, mainly elaidic acid (t-18:1D9). Additional sources are animal and dairy fats [palmitelaidic acid (t-16:1D9) and t-vaccenic acid (t-18:1D11)] and partly hydrogenated fish oils. (very-long-chain trans fatty acids, ie, >C22) (PMID: 9734731). Palmitelaidic acid has been reported as the predominant trans-16:1 isomer in cheeses made with goat and ewe milks (PMID: 11026624).
Diosmetin is found in citrus. Diosmetin is isolated from peel of lemon (Citrus limon) and other
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is found in chickpea. 3,4',7-Trihydroxyflavone is isolated from Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Behenic acid, also docosanoic acid, is a normal carboxylic acid, a fatty acid with formula C21H43COOH. It is an important constituent of the behen oil extracted from the seeds of the Ben-oil tree, and it is so named from the Persian month Bahman when the roots of this tree were harvested. Behenic acid has been identified in the human placenta (PMID:32033212).
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercetin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions (PMID:17015250).
Norizalpinin is found in apple. Norizalpinin is a constituent of Galanga root (Alpinia officinarum)
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fatty acid (the trans isomer of palmitoleic acid). Trans fatty acids are known to cause changes in plasma lipids and lipoprotein phenotypes, but the mechanisms involved are unknown. The major dietary sources of trans fatty acids are partly hydrogenated vegetable oils, mainly elaidic acid (t-18:1D9). Additional sources are animal and dairy fats [palmitelaidic acid (t-16:1D9) and t-vaccenic acid (t-18:1D11)] and partly hydrogenated fish oils. (very-long-chain trans fatty acids, ie, >C22) (PMID: 9734731). Palmitelaidic acid has been reported as the predominant trans-16:1 isomer in cheeses made with goat and ewe milks (PMID: 11026624).
Prunetin is found in herbs and spices. Prunetin occurs in several Prunus species and Glycyrrhiza glabra (licorice).
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (18:2) in which the two double bonds are conjugated. CLA has been suggested to have effects on human health, including effects on body composition, blood lipids, liver metabolism, insulin sensitivity and immune function, with mixed results. Some reported data suggest that the effects of the substance may be isomer dependent and that cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acids have opposing effects, the later (trans-10,cis-12 CLA) having a relative detrimental effect on blood lipids. (PMID 16477173).
Undecanoic acid, also known as N-undecylic acid or N-undecanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Undecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Undecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is found in citrus. Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is a constituent of Seville orange peel (Citrus aurantium) and other Citrus species Very bitter flavouring agent
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fatty acid (the trans isomer of palmitoleic acid). Trans fatty acids are known to cause changes in plasma lipids and lipoprotein phenotypes, but the mechanisms involved are unknown. The major dietary sources of trans fatty acids are partly hydrogenated vegetable oils, mainly elaidic acid (t-18:1D9). Additional sources are animal and dairy fats [palmitelaidic acid (t-16:1D9) and t-vaccenic acid (t-18:1D11)] and partly hydrogenated fish oils. (very-long-chain trans fatty acids, ie, >C22) (PMID: 9734731). Palmitelaidic acid has been reported as the predominant trans-16:1 isomer in cheeses made with goat and ewe milks (PMID: 11026624).
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Chrysoeriol, also known as 3'-O-methylluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as 3'-O-methylated flavonoids. These are flavonoids with methoxy groups attached to the C3' atom of the flavonoid backbone. Thus, chrysoeriol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Chrysoeriol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Chrysoeriol is a bitter-tasting compound. Outside of the human body, chrysoeriol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as wild celeries, ryes, hard wheat, alfalfa, and triticales. This could make chrysoeriol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Procyanidin B2 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B2 is present in red wine.
Henicosanoic acid, also known as N-heneicosanoate or 21:0,is a long-chain fatty acid that is henicosane in which one of the methyl groups has been oxidised to give the corresponding carboxylic acid. It is a straight-chain saturated fatty acid and a long-chain fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a henicosanoate. Heneicosanoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Heneicosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Heneicosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Quercitrin, also known as quercimelin or quercitronic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. These are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. A quercetin O-glycoside that is quercetin substituted by a alpha-L-rhamnosyl moiety at position 3 via a glycosidic linkage. Quercitrin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Quercitrin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as lingonberries, american cranberries, and olives and in a lower concentration in common beans, tea, and welsh onions. Quercitrin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as guava, bilberries, common pea, apricots, and spearmints.
Umbelliferone is found in anise. Umbelliferone occurs widely in plants including Angelica species Phytoalexin of infected sweet potat
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
6-geranylnaringenin is a member of the class of compounds known as 6-prenylated flavanones. 6-prenylated flavanones are flavanones that features a C5-isoprenoid substituent at the 6-position. 6-geranylnaringenin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). 6-geranylnaringenin can be found in beer, which makes 6-geranylnaringenin a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
Umbelliferone is found in anise. Umbelliferone occurs widely in plants including Angelica species Phytoalexin of infected sweet potat
Vanillic acid is a phenolic acid found in some forms of vanilla and many other plant extracts. It is a flavouring and scent agent that produces a pleasant, creamy odour. It is the intermediate product in the two-step bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillin (J Biotechnol 1996;50(2-3):107-13). Vanillic acid, which is a chlorogenic acid, is an oxidized form of vanillin. It is also an intermediate in the production of vanillin from ferulic acid. Vanillic acid is a metabolic byproduct of caffeic acid and is often found in the urine of humans who have consumed coffee, chocolate, tea, and vanilla-flavoured confectionary. Vanillic acid selectively and specifically inhibits 5'nucleotidase activity (PMID: 16899266). Vanillic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Amycolatopsis, Delftia, and Pseudomonas (PMID: 11152072, 10543794, 11728709, 9579070).
Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit. Hesperidin is an abundant and inexpensive by-product of Citrus cultivation and is the major flavonoid in sweet orange and lemon. In young immature oranges it can account for up to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit due to vitamin C deficiency such as bruising due to capillary fragility were found in early studies to be relieved by crude vitamin C extract but not by purified vitamin C. The bioflavonoids, formerly called "vitamin P", were found to be the essential components in correcting this bruising tendency and improving the permeability and integrity of the capillary lining. These bioflavonoids include hesperidin, citrin, rutin, flavones, flavonols, catechin and quercetin. Of historical importance is the observation that "citrin", a mixture of two flavonoids, eriodictyol and hesperidin, was considered to possess a vitamin-like activity, as early as in 1949. Hesperidin deficiency has since been linked with abnormal capillary leakiness as well as pain in the extremities causing aches, weakness and night leg cramps. Supplemental hesperidin also helps in reducing oedema or excess swelling in the legs due to fluid accumulation. As with other bioflavonoids, hesperidin works best when administered concomitantly with vitamin C. No signs of toxicity have been observed with normal intake of hesperidin. Hesperidin was first discovered in 1827, by Lebreton, but not in a pure state and has been under continuous investigation since then (PMID:11746857).
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals, plants, and microorganisms. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from the fruit of oil palms (palm oil). Excess carbohydrates in the body are converted to palmitic acid. Palmitic acid is the first fatty acid produced during fatty acid synthesis and is the precursor to longer fatty acids. As a consequence, palmitic acid is a major body component of animals. In humans, one analysis found it to make up 21–30% (molar) of human depot fat (PMID: 13756126), and it is a major, but highly variable, lipid component of human breast milk (PMID: 352132). Palmitic acid is used to produce soaps, cosmetics, and industrial mould release agents. These applications use sodium palmitate, which is commonly obtained by saponification of palm oil. To this end, palm oil, rendered from palm tree (species Elaeis guineensis), is treated with sodium hydroxide (in the form of caustic soda or lye), which causes hydrolysis of the ester groups, yielding glycerol and sodium palmitate. Aluminium salts of palmitic acid and naphthenic acid were combined during World War II to produce napalm. The word "napalm" is derived from the words naphthenic acid and palmitic acid (Wikipedia). Palmitic acid is also used in the determination of water hardness and is a surfactant of Levovist, an intravenous ultrasonic contrast agent.
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',6'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Henicosanoic acid, also known as N-heneicosanoate or 21:0,is a long-chain fatty acid that is henicosane in which one of the methyl groups has been oxidised to give the corresponding carboxylic acid. It is a straight-chain saturated fatty acid and a long-chain fatty acid. It is a conjugate acid of a henicosanoate. Heneicosanoic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Heneicosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Heneicosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
3'-Hydroxydaidzein is a polyphenol metabolite detected in biological fluids (PMID: 20428313).
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
Norizalpinin is found in apple. Norizalpinin is a constituent of Galanga root (Alpinia officinarum)
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
6-Hydroxydaidzein is found in pulses. 6-Hydroxydaidzein is isolated from fermented soybeans (Glycine max
Quercetin 4'-glucoside is found in garden onion. Spiraeoside is the 4'-O-glucoside of quercetin. (Wikipedia).
Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is found in citrus. Hesperetin 7-neohesperidoside is a constituent of Seville orange peel (Citrus aurantium) and other Citrus species Very bitter flavouring agent
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Kaempferol 7-glucoside is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Kaempferol 7-glucoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Kaempferol 7-glucoside can be found in a number of food items such as flaxseed, ginkgo nuts, white cabbage, and saffron, which makes kaempferol 7-glucoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
gamma-Linolenic acid, also known as 18:3n6 or GLA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as linoleic acids and derivatives. These are derivatives of linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18-carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. gamma-Linolenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. gamma-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid produced in the body as the delta 6-desaturase metabolite of linoleic acid. It is converted into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, a biosynthetic precursor of monoenoic prostaglandins such as PGE1 (PubChem).
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, and MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes (PMID: 16982614). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin (PMID: 16844095). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis (PMID: 16648565).
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Conjugated linoleic acid is an integral term for the mixture of positional and geometrical isomers of the octadecadienoic acids, whose two double-bonds are separated with one single-bond. The most common isomers are cis-9, trans-11, and trans-10, cis-12. Conjugated linoleic acid is present in the food namely in the red meat and dairy products which the contemporary dietary recommendations tend to limit. Those limitations should be compensated with dietary supplements. Much attention has focused on the therapeutic potential of conjugated linoleic acid. Initial animal studies associated conjugated linoleic acid with beneficial health properties, such as reducing the risk of cancer, diabetes, atherosclerosis, inflammation and obesity. More recent human conjugated linoleic acid supplementation studies have often shown conflicting and less convincing health benefits. The marked variation between studies may reflect the isomer-specific effect of the individual conjugated linoleic acid isomers, which can often have opposing effects. Detrimental effects have been observed in some studies, in particular after supplementation with the trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid isomer. Diet composition may modulate CLA effects on body fat accumulation. As far as human studies are concerned, a specific dietary pattern has not been established. As a result differences among studies and also among subjects in the same study are likely. In rodents, the effects of CLA vary with genotype, suggesting that genetic predisposition to fat accumulation can play an important role in the effectiveness of CLA. Human volunteers with different body mass index have participated in the published studies and even in the same experiment. So, differences in lipid metabolism among subjects could help to explain the discrepancies observed in the literature. Age and maturity may also be crucial. (PMID: 17053429, 17217167, 17554969, 16477173).
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
Heptadecanoic acid is a fatty acid of exogenous (primarily ruminant) origin. Many "odd" length long chain amino acids are derived from the consumption of dairy fats (milk and meat). Heptadecanoic acid constitutes 0.61% of milk fat and 0.83% of ruminant meat fat. The content of heptadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID 9701185).
Silicristin is found in coffee and coffee products. Silicristin is isolated from fruits of Silybum marianum (milk thistle).
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Catechin, also known as cyanidanol or catechuic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as catechins. Catechins are compounds containing a catechin moiety, which is a 3,4-dihydro-2-chromene-3,5.7-tiol. Catechin also belongs to the group of compounds known as flavan-3-ols (or simply flavanols), part of the chemical family of flavonoids. Catechin is one of the 4 catechin known diastereoisomers. Two of the isomers are in trans configuration and are called catechin and the other two are in cis configuration and are called epicatechin. The most common catechin isomer is the (+)-catechin. The other stereoisomer is (-)-catechin or ent-catechin. The most common epicatechin isomer is (-)-epicatechin. Catechin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Catechin is a bitter tasting compound and is associated with the bitterness in tea. Catechin is a plant secondary metabolite. Secondary metabolites are metabolically or physiologically non-essential metabolites that may serve a role as defense or signalling molecules. In some cases they are simply molecules that arise from the incomplete metabolism of other secondary metabolites. Catechin is an antioxidant flavonoid, occurring especially in woody plants as both Catechin and (-)-Catechin (cis) forms. Outside of the human body, Catechin is found, on average, in the highest concentration in foods, such as blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum), evergreen blackberries (Rubus laciniatus), and blackberries (Rubus) and in a lower concentration in dills (Anethum graveolens), hot chocolates, and medlars (Mespilus germanica). Catechin has also been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as rice (Oryza sativa), apple ciders, peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), fruit juices, and red teas. This could make catechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Based on a literature review a significant number of articles have been published on Catechin.
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Liquiritigenin is found in alfalfa. Liquiritigenin is isolated from Glycyrrhiza, Medicago, Myroxylon, Cicer, and all Leguminosae species. Several glycosides, particularly rutinoside and neohesperidoside, are important in influencing citrus fruit flavour.
Aromadendrin is found in citrus. Aromadendrin is isolated from Citrus species and many other plant
Isorhoifolin is found in citrus. Isorhoifolin is isolated from leaves of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit) and other plant species.
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
Scopoletin is found in anise. Scopoletin is isolated from Angelica acutiloba (Dong Dang Gui
3,4-Dihydroxybenzaldehyde, also known as protocatechuic aldehyde, is a phenolic aldehyde, a compound released from cork stoppers into wine. This molecule can be used as a precursor in vanillin synthesis via biotransformation by cell cultures of Capsicum frutescens, a type of chili pepper. It is also found in the mushroom Phellinus linteus (Wikipedia).
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',4'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
4-methylumbelliferone is a substrate for: Liver carboxylesterase 1, Cocaine esterase, and S-formylglutathione hydrolase.
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Eriodictyol, also known as 3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavanone or 2,3-dihydroluteolin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavanones. Flavanones are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a ketone at the carbon C3. Thus, eriodictyol is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. Outside of the human body, eriodictyol has been detected, but not quantified in, several different foods, such as common oregano, common thymes, parsley, sweet basils, and tarragons. This could make eriodictyol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Eriodictyol is a compound isolated from Eriodictyon californicum and can be used in medicine as an expectorant. BioTransformer predicts that eriodictiol is a product of luteolin metabolism via a flavonoid-c-ring-reduction reaction catalyzed by an unspecified-gut microbiota enzyme (PMID: 30612223).
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid that is benzoic acid with a hydroxy group at the ortho position. It is obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has a role as an antiinfective agent, an antifungal agent, a keratolytic drug, an EC 1.11.1.11 (L-ascorbate peroxidase) inhibitor, a plant metabolite, an algal metabolite and a plant hormone. It is a conjugate acid of a salicylate. It is a colorless solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. Salicylic acid modulates COX1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Salicylic acid works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor. The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis. Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana, it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
Genistin is found in fruits. Genistin is present in soy foods. Potential nutriceutical. It is isolated from Prunus avium (wild cherry) Genistin is one of several known isoflavones. Genistin is found in a number of plants and herbs like soy
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Undecanoic acid, also known as N-undecylic acid or N-undecanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Undecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Undecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Bovinic acid is a conjugated linoleic acid, present in human adipose tissue; the amount of bovinic acid in humans is significantly related to milk fat intake. Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are a group of naturally occurring fatty acids present mainly in fats from ruminants. Milk contains over 20 isomers of CLA but the predominant one is cis-9,trans-11-CLA (bovinic acid). Biomedical studies with animal models have shown that this isomer has anticarcinogenic and anti-atherogenic activities. Bovinic acid is produced as an intermediate in the rumen biohydrogenation of linoleic acid but not of linolenic acid. However, it is only a transient intermediate, and the major source of milk fat CLA is from endogenous synthesis (PMID: 10393134, 15736916).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
LysoPE(0:0/18:2(9Z,12Z)) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
Pseudobaptigenin is found in herbs and spices. Pseudobaptigenin is isolated from Pisum sativum (pea) and Trifolium pratense (red clover).
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Vitexin, also known as apigenin 8-C-glucoside or 8-glycosylapigenin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid 8-C-glycosides. Flavonoid 8-C-glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate moiety which is C-glycosidically linked to 8-position of a 2-phenylchromen-4-one flavonoid backbone. Vitexin is also described as an apigenin flavone glucoside. Vitexin has been found in passion flower, chasteberry, bamboo leaves, millet and Hawthorn. Vitexin has shown a wide range of pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesic, and neuroprotective effects (PMID: 27693342). Vitexin has also been shown to directly inhibit thyroid peroxidase and potentially contributes to goiter (PMID: 1696490). It is sometimes called a goitrogen.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
Myristic acid, also known as tetradecanoic acid or C14:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Myristic acid (its ester is called myristate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 14 carbons; as such, it is a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  It exists as an oily white crystalline solid.  Myristic acid is found in all living organisms ranging from bacteria to plants to animals, and is found in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat, as well as coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils.  Industrially, myristic acid is used to synthesize a variety of flavour compounds and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics (Dorland, 28th ed). Within eukaryotic cells, myristic acid is also commonly conjugated to a penultimate N-terminal glycine residue in receptor-associated kinases to confer membrane localization of these enzymes (a post-translational modification called myristoylation via the enzyme N-myristoyltransferase). Myristic acid has a high enough hydrophobicity to allow the myristoylated protein to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells.  Also, this fatty acid is known because it accumulates as fat in the body; however, its consumption also impacts positively on cardiovascular health (see, for example, PMID: 15936650).  Myristic acid is named after the scientific name for nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, from which it was first isolated in 1841 by Lyon Playfair.
Puerarin, also known as Kakonein, is a member of the class of compounds known as isoflavonoid C-glycosides. These compounds are C-glycosylated derivatives of isoflavonoids, which are natural products derived from 3-phenylchromen-4-one. Puerarin is considered a slightly soluble (in water), acidic compound. Puerarin can be synthesized into puerarin xyloside. Puerarin is found in a number of plants and herbs, such as the root of the kudzu plant.
LysoPC(18:2(9Z,12Z)) is a lysophospholipid (LyP). It is a monoglycerophospholipid in which a phosphorylcholine moiety occupies a glycerol substitution site. Lysophosphatidylcholines can have different combinations of fatty acids of varying lengths and saturation attached at the C-1 (sn-1) position. Fatty acids containing 16, 18 and 20 carbons are the most common. LysoPC(18:2(9Z,12Z)), in particular, consists of one chain of linoleic acid at the C-1 position. The linoleic acid moiety is derived from seed oils. Lysophosphatidylcholine is found in small amounts in most tissues. It is formed by hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine by the enzyme phospholipase A2, as part of the de-acylation/re-acylation cycle that controls its overall molecular species composition. It can also be formed inadvertently during extraction of lipids from tissues if the phospholipase is activated by careless handling. In blood plasma significant amounts of lysophosphatidylcholine are formed by a specific enzyme system, lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT), which is secreted from the liver. The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of the fatty acids of position sn-2 of phosphatidylcholine to the free cholesterol in plasma, with formation of cholesterol esters and lysophosphatidylcholine. Lysophospholipids have a role in lipid signaling by acting on lysophospholipid receptors (LPL-R). LPL-R's are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family of integral membrane proteins.
Glycitein is a soy isoflavone. It is a minor component in most soy products. It's role of reducing low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is not clear. Glycitein is metabolized by human gut microorganisms and may follow metabolic pathways similar to other soy isoflavones (PMID: 12011578; 16248547). Glycitein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Silicristin is found in coffee and coffee products. Silicristin is isolated from fruits of Silybum marianum (milk thistle).
gamma-Linolenic acid, also known as 18:3n6 or GLA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as linoleic acids and derivatives. These are derivatives of linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18-carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. gamma-Linolenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. gamma-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid produced in the body as the delta 6-desaturase metabolite of linoleic acid. It is converted into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, a biosynthetic precursor of monoenoic prostaglandins such as PGE1 (PubChem).
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Undecanoic acid, also known as N-undecylic acid or N-undecanoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as medium-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 4 and 12 carbon atoms. Undecanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Undecanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Vaccenic acid is a naturally occurring trans fatty acid. It is the predominant kind of trans-fatty acid found in human milk, in the fat of ruminants, and in dairy products such as milk, butter, and yogurt. Trans fat in human milk may depend on trans fat content in food. Its IUPAC name is (11E)-11-octadecenoic acid, and its lipid shorthand name is 18:1 trans-11. The name was derived from the Latin vacca (cow). Vaccenic acid belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Vaccenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral.
gamma-Linolenic acid, also known as 18:3n6 or GLA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as linoleic acids and derivatives. These are derivatives of linoleic acid. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18-carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. gamma-Linolenic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. gamma-Linolenic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid produced in the body as the delta 6-desaturase metabolite of linoleic acid. It is converted into dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid, a biosynthetic precursor of monoenoic prostaglandins such as PGE1 (PubChem).
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
Taxifolin, also known as dihydroquercetin or (+)-taxifolin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavanonols. Flavanonols are compounds containing a flavan-3-one moiety, with a structure characterized by a 2-phenyl-3,4-dihydro-2H-1-benzopyran bearing a hydroxyl group and a ketone at the carbon C2 and C3, respectively. Taxifolin is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Taxifolin can be found in a number of food items such as sweet rowanberry, arrowroot, evening primrose, and walnut, which makes taxifolin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products. Taxifolin is a flavanonol, a type of flavonoid .
Norizalpinin is found in apple. Norizalpinin is a constituent of Galanga root (Alpinia officinarum)
(-)-Epigallocatechin is found in almond. (-)-Epigallocatechin is widespread in plants; broad beans are an especially good source; present in green and black tea. Potential nutriceutica
Formononetin are abundant in vegetables. It is a phyto-oestrogen that is a polyphenolic non-steroidal plant compound with oestrogen-like biological activity (PMID: 16108819). It can be the source of considerable estrogenic activity (http://www.herbalchem.net/Intermediate.htm).
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is found in sweet orange. Intensely sweet, 612 times more sweet than sucrose. Acceptable daily intake: 5 mg/kg (1987). Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is a permitted in EU at low concs. (=10 ppm) for certain applications, e.g. low-alcohol beer. Generally recognised as safe (GRAS) in the USA. Practical use limited by slow development of taste sensation and peculiar aftertaste Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, sometimes abbreviated to neohesperidin DC or simply NHDC, is an artificial sweetener derived from citrus. The European Union approved NHDC's use as a sweetener in 1994. It has not been approved as a sweetener in the United States. It is sometimes said that NHDC is considered a Generally Recognized as Safe flavour enhancer by the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers' Association, which is a trade group with no legal standing. NHDC has never appeared on the FDA's GRAS listing
Daidzin is found in miso. Daidzin is isolated from soya bean (Glycine max) and soya bean meal, kudzu root (Pueraria lobata), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and other Leguminosae.Daidzin is a cancer preventive and an alcohol dependency treatment (antidipsotropic) in animal models. Daidzin is a natural organic compound in the class of phytochemicals known as isoflavones. Daidzin can be found in Japanese plant Kudzu (Pueraria lobata, Fabaceae) and from soybean leaves
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
Isohumulone B is found in alcoholic beverages. Isohumulone B is found in beer as isomer  produced of Humulon
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Cumoesterol (or coumestrol), a coumestan isoflavone, has estrogenic properties (phytoestrogens are compounds structurally and functionally similar to 17-estradiol) and is an isoflavonoid phytoalexin produced by soybeans, a low molecular weight antimicrobial compound that is synthesized de novo and accumulates in plants after exposure to microorganisms (i.e.: phytoalexin induction and accumulation in soybean cotyledon tissue is observed with four species of Aspergillus: A. sojae, A. oryzae, A. niger, and A. flavus) (PMID: 10888516). Coumestrol is a naturally occurring plant coumarin that displays high affinity for the hormone-binding site of the human estrogen receptor (hER), for which it serves as a potent non-steroidal agonist. Coumestrol emits intense blue fluorescence when bound to this protein, making it ideally suited for use as a cytological stain to detect ER in fixed and intact cells. Such observations illustrate the potential for using coumestrol to investigate real-time effects of a variety of physiological stimuli on the subcellular distribution of hER in living cells (PMID: 8315272).
Kaempferitrin is found in linden. Kaempferitrin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from the leaves of Hedyotis verticillata.
Vanillic acid is a phenolic acid found in some forms of vanilla and many other plant extracts. It is a flavouring and scent agent that produces a pleasant, creamy odour. It is the intermediate product in the two-step bioconversion of ferulic acid to vanillin (J Biotechnol 1996;50(2-3):107-13). Vanillic acid, which is a chlorogenic acid, is an oxidized form of vanillin. It is also an intermediate in the production of vanillin from ferulic acid. Vanillic acid is a metabolic byproduct of caffeic acid and is often found in the urine of humans who have consumed coffee, chocolate, tea, and vanilla-flavoured confectionary. Vanillic acid selectively and specifically inhibits 5'nucleotidase activity (PMID: 16899266). Vanillic acid is a microbial metabolite found in Amycolatopsis, Delftia, and Pseudomonas (PMID: 11152072, 10543794, 11728709, 9579070).
Oleic acid (or 9Z)-Octadecenoic acid) is an unsaturated C-18 or an omega-9 fatty acid that is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The name derives from the Latin word oleum, which means oil. Oleic acid is the most abundant fatty acid in human adipose tissue, and the second most abundant in human tissues overall, following palmitic acid. Oleic acid is a component of the normal human diet, being a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Triglycerides of oleic acid represent the majority of olive oil (about 70%). Oleic acid triglycerides also make up 59‚Äì75% of pecan oil, 61% of canola oil, 36‚Äì67% of peanut oil, 60% of macadamia oil, 20‚Äì80% of sunflower oil, 15‚Äì20% of grape seed oil, sea buckthorn oil, 40% of sesame oil, and 14% of poppyseed oil. High oleic variants of plant sources such as sunflower (~80%) and canola oil (70%) also have been developed. consumption has been associated with decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and possibly with increased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, however, the ability of oleic acid to raise HDL is still debated. Oleic acid may be responsible for the hypotensive (blood pressure reducing) effects of olive oil that is considered a health benefit. Oleic acid is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also used as an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.
Medicagenic acid is found in cereals and cereal products. Aglycone from the roots of Medicago sativa (alfalfa), other Medicago specie
Rutin is a flavonoid known to have a variety of biological activities including antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and anticarcinogenic properties. A large number of flavonoids, mostly O-glycosides, are polyphenolic compounds of natural origin that are present in most fruits and vegetables. The average intake of the compounds by humans on a normal diet is more than 1 g per day. Although flavonoids are devoid of classical nutritional value, they are increasingly viewed as beneficial dietary components that act as potential protectors against human diseases such as coronary heart disease, cancers, and inflammatory bowel disease. Rutin acts as a quercetin deliverer to the large intestine; moreover, quercetin is extensively metabolized in the large intestine, which suggests that quercetin liberated from rutin and/or its colonic metabolites may play a role. Rutin's anti-inflammatory actions are mediated through a molecular mechanism that underlies the quercetin-mediated therapeutic effects: quercetin-mediated inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-induced nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) activation. TNF-alpha-induced NFkB activity plays a central role in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators involved in progression of gut inflammation. (PMID:16132362).
Myricetin, also known as cannabiscetin or myricetol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, myricetin is considered to be a flavonoid lipid molecule. A hexahydroxyflavone that is flavone substituted by hydroxy groups at positions 3, 3', 4', 5, 5' and 7. Myricetin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Myricetin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as common walnuts, carobs, and fennels and in a lower concentration in welsh onions, yellow bell peppers, and jutes. Myricetin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as napa cabbages, sesames, mixed nuts, lichee, and garden cress.
Kaempferol, also known as rhamnolutein or c.i. 75640, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonols. Flavonols are compounds that contain a flavone (2-phenyl-1-benzopyran-4-one) backbone carrying a hydroxyl group at the 3-position. Thus, kaempferol is considered to be a flavonoid molecule. A tetrahydroxyflavone in which the four hydroxy groups are located at positions 3, 5, 7 and 4'. Kaempferol is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Kaempferol exists in all eukaryotes, ranging from yeast to humans. Kaempferol is a bitter tasting compound. Kaempferol is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as saffrons, capers, and cumins and in a lower concentration in lovages, endives, and cloves. Kaempferol has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as shallots, pine nuts, feijoa, kombus, and chicory leaves. This could make kaempferol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Kaempferol is a potentially toxic compound.
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Lupulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Lupulone is a constituent of hops
Xanthohumol is found in alcoholic beverages. Xanthohumol is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops
Quercitrin, also known as quercimelin or quercitronic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as flavonoid-3-o-glycosides. These are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C3-position. A quercetin O-glycoside that is quercetin substituted by a alpha-L-rhamnosyl moiety at position 3 via a glycosidic linkage. Quercitrin exists in all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans. Quercitrin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as lingonberries, american cranberries, and olives and in a lower concentration in common beans, tea, and welsh onions. Quercitrin has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as guava, bilberries, common pea, apricots, and spearmints.
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is found in sweet orange. Intensely sweet, 612 times more sweet than sucrose. Acceptable daily intake: 5 mg/kg (1987). Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is a permitted in EU at low concs. (=10 ppm) for certain applications, e.g. low-alcohol beer. Generally recognised as safe (GRAS) in the USA. Practical use limited by slow development of taste sensation and peculiar aftertaste Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, sometimes abbreviated to neohesperidin DC or simply NHDC, is an artificial sweetener derived from citrus. The European Union approved NHDC's use as a sweetener in 1994. It has not been approved as a sweetener in the United States. It is sometimes said that NHDC is considered a Generally Recognized as Safe flavour enhancer by the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers' Association, which is a trade group with no legal standing. NHDC has never appeared on the FDA's GRAS listing
Cosmosiin, also known as apigenin 7-O-glucoside or apigetrin, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-O-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-O-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Cosmosiin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Cosmosiin can be found in a number of food items, such as common thyme, white lupine, common oregano, and orange mint. Cosmosiin can also be found in dandelion coffee and in Teucrium gnaphalodes (Wikipedia). Cosmosiin can also be found plants such as wild celery and anise. Cosmosiin has been shown to exhibit anti-platelet function (PMID: 21834233).
5-methoxysalicylic acid is a methoxysalicylic acid that is salicylic acid which is carrying a methoxy group at position 5. It has a role as a bacterial metabolite and a human urinary metabolite. 5-Methoxysalicylic acid is also known as 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoate or 5-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzoate and belongs to the class of organic compounds known as m-methoxybenzoic acids and derivatives. These are benzoic acids in which the hydrogen atom at position 3 of the benzene ring is replaced by a methoxy group. Outside of the human body, 5-Methoxysalicylic acid has been detected, but not quantified in herbs and spices and tea.
Tricosanoic acid, also known as N-tricosanoate or 22FA, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as very long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains at least 22 carbon atoms. Tricosanoic acid is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble in water, and relatively neutral. Tricosanoic acid is a potentially toxic compound.
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',4'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
Hydrocinnamic acid, also known as 3-phenylpropanoic acid or dihydrocinnamic acid, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanoic acids. Phenylpropanoic acids are compounds with a structure containing a benzene ring conjugated to a propanoic acid (C6-C3). Phenylpropanoic acid can be prepared from cinnamic acid by hydrogenation. Hydrocinnamic acid is a sweet, balsamic, and cinnamon tasting compound. This compound is used frequently in cosmetic products such as perfumes, bath gels, detergent powders, liquid detergents, fabric softeners, and soaps as it gives off a floral scent. A characteristic reaction of phenylpropanoic acid is its cyclization to indanones. Phenylpropanoic acid is used in the food industry to preserve and maintain the original aroma quality of frozen foods. Phenylpropanoic acid is also added to food for technological purposes in a wide variety including manufacturing, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transportation or storage, and food additives. This compound is used as a sweetener as well to sweeten food and can be found in tabletop sweeteners.
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fatty acid (the trans isomer of palmitoleic acid). Trans fatty acids are known to cause changes in plasma lipids and lipoprotein phenotypes, but the mechanisms involved are unknown. The major dietary sources of trans fatty acids are partly hydrogenated vegetable oils, mainly elaidic acid (t-18:1D9). Additional sources are animal and dairy fats [palmitelaidic acid (t-16:1D9) and t-vaccenic acid (t-18:1D11)] and partly hydrogenated fish oils. (very-long-chain trans fatty acids, ie, >C22) (PMID: 9734731). Palmitelaidic acid has been reported as the predominant trans-16:1 isomer in cheeses made with goat and ewe milks (PMID: 11026624).
Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside, also known as rhoifolin or apigenin-7-O-rhamnoglucoside, is a member of the class of compounds known as flavonoid-7-o-glycosides. Flavonoid-7-o-glycosides are phenolic compounds containing a flavonoid moiety which is O-glycosidically linked to carbohydrate moiety at the C7-position. Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside is slightly soluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside can be found in carrot, orange mint, and wild carrot, which makes apigenin 7-o-beta-d-rutinoside a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Ent-gallocatechin, also known as (2s,3r)-flavan-3,3',4',5,5',7-hexol or (2s,3r)-gallocatechin, is a member of the class of compounds known as epigallocatechins. Epigallocatechins are compounds containing epigallocatechin or a derivative. Epigallocatechin is a flavan-3-ol containing a benzopyran-3,5,7-triol linked to a 3,4,5-hydroxyphenyl moiety. Ent-gallocatechin is practically insoluble (in water) and a very weakly acidic compound (based on its pKa). Ent-gallocatechin can be found in common grape and tea, which makes ent-gallocatechin a potential biomarker for the consumption of these food products.
Palmitelaidic acid is a trans fatty acid (the trans isomer of palmitoleic acid). Trans fatty acids are known to cause changes in plasma lipids and lipoprotein phenotypes, but the mechanisms involved are unknown. The major dietary sources of trans fatty acids are partly hydrogenated vegetable oils, mainly elaidic acid (t-18:1D9). Additional sources are animal and dairy fats [palmitelaidic acid (t-16:1D9) and t-vaccenic acid (t-18:1D11)] and partly hydrogenated fish oils. (very-long-chain trans fatty acids, ie, >C22) (PMID: 9734731). Palmitelaidic acid has been reported as the predominant trans-16:1 isomer in cheeses made with goat and ewe milks (PMID: 11026624).
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Astragalin is found in alcoholic beverages. Astragalin is present in red wine. It is isolated from many plant species.Astragalin is a 3-O-glucoside of kaempferol. Astragalin is a chemical compound. It can be isolated from Phytolacca americana (the American pokeweed).
6-Hydroxydaidzein is found in pulses. 6-Hydroxydaidzein is isolated from fermented soybeans (Glycine max
Liquiritigenin is found in alfalfa. Liquiritigenin is isolated from Glycyrrhiza, Medicago, Myroxylon, Cicer, and all Leguminosae species. Several glycosides, particularly rutinoside and neohesperidoside, are important in influencing citrus fruit flavour.
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for a mixture of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid (18:2) in which the two double bonds are conjugated. CLA has been suggested to have effects on human health, including effects on body composition, blood lipids, liver metabolism, insulin sensitivity and immune function, with mixed results. Some reported data suggest that the effects of the substance may be isomer dependent and that cis-9,trans-11 and trans-10,cis-12 conjugated linoleic acids have opposing effects, the later (trans-10,cis-12 CLA) having a relative detrimental effect on blood lipids. (PMID 16477173).
Tricetin is found in cereals and cereal products. Tricetin is a constituent of the seed coat of lentil (Lens culinaris)
Ursolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid in plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. This included the isolation and purification of these tritepernoids from various plants and herbs, the chemical modifications to make more effective and water soluble derivatives, the pharmacological research on their beneficial effects, the toxicity studies, and the clinical use of these triterpenoids in various diseases including anticancer chemotherapies. Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpene acid, has been isolated from many kinds of medicinal plants, such as Eriobotrya japonica, Rosmarinns officinalis, Melaleuca leucadendron, Ocimum sanctum and Glechoma hederaceae. UA has been reported to produce antitumor activities and antioxidant activity, and is reported to have an antioxidant activity. UA may play an important role in regulating the apoptosis induced by high glucose presumably through scavenging of ROS (reactive oxygen species). It has been found recently that ursolic acid treatment affects growth and apoptosis in cancer cells. (PMID: 15994040, 17516235, 17213663).
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
Sissotrin is found in chickpea. Sissotrin is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea).
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is found in herbs and spices. Negletein 6-[rhamnosyl-(1->2)-fucoside] is a constituent of oregano (Origanum vulgare)
Apiin is found in celery leaves. Apiin is a constituent of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and of the flowers of Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile). First isolated in 1843 Apiin is a chemical compound isolated from parsley and celery
Kaempferide is found in cloves. Kaempferide is isolated from roots of Alpinia officinarum (lesser galangal).
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
Potential component of FEMA 3662. 2',6'-Dihydroxyacetophenone is a flavouring ingredien
alpha-Linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). It is a member of the group of essential fatty acids called omega-3 fatty acids. alpha-Linolenic acid, in particular, is not synthesized by mammals and therefore is an essential dietary requirement for all mammals. Certain nuts (English walnuts) and vegetable oils (canola, soybean, flaxseed/linseed, olive) are particularly rich in alpha-linolenic acid. Omega-3 fatty acids get their name based on the location of one of their first double bond. In all omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located between the third and fourth carbon atom counting from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-3). Although humans and other mammals can synthesize saturated and some monounsaturated fatty acids from carbon groups in carbohydrates and proteins, they lack the enzymes necessary to insert a cis double bond at the n-6 or the n-3 position of a fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids like alpha-linolenic acid are important structural components of cell membranes. When incorporated into phospholipids, they affect cell membrane properties such as fluidity, flexibility, permeability, and the activity of membrane-bound enzymes. Omega-3 fatty acids can modulate the expression of a number of genes, including those involved with fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. alpha-Linolenic acid and other omega-3 fatty acids may regulate gene expression by interacting with specific transcription factors, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptors (LXRs). alpha-Linolenic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (PMID: 16903077). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (PMID: 16651441). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (PMID: 16598420). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (PMID: 16549448).
Resveratrol is a polyphenolic phytoalexin. It is also classified as a stilbenoid, a derivate of stilbene, and is produced in plants with the help of the enzyme stilbene synthase. The levels of resveratrol found in food vary greatly. Red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L depending on the grape variety, while white wine has much less. The reason for this difference is that red wine is fermented with grape skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol, whereas white wine is fermented after the skin has been removed. Resveratrol is also sold as a nutritional supplement. A number of beneficial health effects, such as anti-cancer, antiviral, neuroprotective, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and life-prolonging effects have been reported for resveratrol. The fact that resveratrol is found in the skin of red grapes and as a constituent of red wine may explain the "French paradox". This paradox is based on the observation that the incidence of coronary heart disease is relatively low in southern France despite high dietary intake of saturated fats. Resveratrol is thought to achieve these cardioprotective effects by a number of different routes: (1) inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule expression; (2) inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation; (3) stimulation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity; (4) inhibition of platelet aggregation; and (5) inhibition of LDL peroxidation (PMID: 17875315, 14676260, 9678525). Resveratrol is a biomarker for the consumption of grapes and raisins.
Cohumulone is found in alcoholic beverages. Cohumulone is a constituent of hops.
Linoelaidic acid is an isomer of linoleic acid, or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a derivative of a fatty acid linoleic acid. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, a group of positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)], have been studied extensively due to their ability to modulate cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune function and diabetes in a variety of experimental models. CLA's ability to modulate human obesity remains controversial because data from clinical trials using mixed isomers are conflicting. (PMID 10759137). Trans fatty acids are characteristically produced during industrial hydrogenation of plant oils.
Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is found in sweet orange. Intensely sweet, 612 times more sweet than sucrose. Acceptable daily intake: 5 mg/kg (1987). Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone is a permitted in EU at low concs. (=10 ppm) for certain applications, e.g. low-alcohol beer. Generally recognised as safe (GRAS) in the USA. Practical use limited by slow development of taste sensation and peculiar aftertaste Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, sometimes abbreviated to neohesperidin DC or simply NHDC, is an artificial sweetener derived from citrus. The European Union approved NHDC's use as a sweetener in 1994. It has not been approved as a sweetener in the United States. It is sometimes said that NHDC is considered a Generally Recognized as Safe flavour enhancer by the Flavour and Extract Manufacturers' Association, which is a trade group with no legal standing. NHDC has never appeared on the FDA's GRAS listing
Sakuranetin is found in black walnut. Sakuranetin is a flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It can be found in Polymnia fruticosa and rice, where it acts as a phytoalexin against spore germination of Pyricularia oryzae
Asiaticoside is found in green vegetables. Asiaticoside is a constituent of Centella asiatica (Asiatic pennywort)
Naringenin is a flavorless, colorless flavanone, a type of flavonoid. It is the predominant flavanone in grapefruit, and is found in a variety of fruits and herbs. Naringenin has the skeleton structure of a flavanone with three hydroxy groups at the 4', 5, and 7 carbons. It may be found both in the aglycol form, naringenin, or in its glycosidic form, naringin, which has the addition of the disaccharide neohesperidose attached via a glycosidic linkage at carbon 7. Naringenin (not to be confused with naringin) is a flavanone that is considered to have a bioactive effect on human health as antioxidant, free radical scavenger, antiinflammatory, carbohydrate metabolism promoter, immunity system modulater. This substance has also been shown to repair DNA. Scientists exposed cells to 80 micomoles of naringenin per liter, for 24 hours, and found that the amount of hydroxyl damage to the DNA was reduced by 24 percent in that very short period of time. Unfortunately, this bioflavonoid is difficult to absorb on oral ingestion. Only 15% of ingested naringenin will get absorbed, in the human gastrointestinal tract, in the best case scenario. A full glass of orange juice will supply about enough naringenin to achieve a concentration of about 0.5 micromoles per liter. Naringenin is a biomarker for the consumption of citrus fruits.
Puddumin B is found in fruits. Puddumin B is isolated from Prunus cerasoides (wild Himalayan cherry).
Procyanidin B1 is found in alcoholic beverages. Procyanidin B1 is present in red win
LysoPE(0:0/18:3(9Z,12Z,15Z)) is a lysophosphatidylethanolamine or a lysophospholipid. The term 'lysophospholipid' (LPL) refers to any phospholipid that is missing one of its two O-acyl chains. Thus, LPLs have a free alcohol in either the sn-1 or sn-2 position. The prefix 'lyso-' comes from the fact that lysophospholipids were originally found to be hemolytic however it is now used to refer generally to phospholipids missing an acyl chain. LPLs are usually the result of phospholipase A-type enzymatic activity on regular phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidic acid, although they can also be generated by the acylation of glycerophospholipids or the phosphorylation of monoacylglycerols. Some LPLs serve important signaling functions such as lysophosphatidic acid. Lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPEs) can function as plant growth regulators with several diverse uses. (LPEs) are approved for outdoor agricultural use to accelerate ripening and improve the quality of fresh produce. They are also approved for indoor use to preserve stored crops and commercial cut flowers. As a breakdown product of phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), LPE is present in cells of all organisms.
Tricetin is found in cereals and cereal products. Tricetin is a constituent of the seed coat of lentil (Lens culinaris)
Naringin, also known as naringoside or naringin hydrate, is a flavanone-7-O-glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. Naringin belongs to the flavonoid family. Flavonoids consist of 15 carbon atoms in 3 rings, 2 of which must be benzene rings connected by a 3 carbon chain.  Naringin contains the basic flavonoid structure along with one rhamnose and one glucose unit attached to its aglycone portion, called naringenin, at the 7-carbon position. The steric hindrance provided by the two sugar units makes naringin less potent than its aglycone counterpart, naringenin. Naringin is a bitter tasting compound. Naringin is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as rosemaries, grapefruit/pummelo hybrids, and grapefruits and in a lower concentration in grape wines, pummelo, and beers. Naringin has also been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as citrus, limes, herbs and spices, common oregano, and mandarin orange (clementine, tangerine). Both naringin and hesperetin, which are the aglycones of naringin and hesperidin, occur naturally in citrus fruits. Naringin is the major flavonoid glycoside in grapefruit and gives grapefruit juice its bitter taste. Narinigin exerts a variety of pharmacological effects such as antioxidant activity, blood lipid-lowering, anticarcinogenic activity, and inhibition of selected cytochrome P450 enzymes including CYP3A4 and CYP1A2, which may result in several drug interactions in-vitro.
(S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is found in alcoholic beverages. (S)-4',5,7-Trihydroxy-6-prenylflavanone is isolated from Humulus lupulus (hops).
Orientin is found in barley. Orientin is isolated from Hordeum vulgare (barley) and Passiflora incarnata (maypops).Orientin is a flavone, a chemical flavonoid-like compound found in the passion flower, the palm and Anadenanthera peregrina. Orientin is also reported in millets and in the Phyllostachys nigra bamboo leaves
Tricetin is found in cereals and cereal products. Tricetin is a constituent of the seed coat of lentil (Lens culinaris)
Isoferulic acid (CAS: 537-73-5) is a chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are formed by the esterification of hydroxycinnamic acids (e.g. caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p-coumaric acid) with quinic acid. CGAs are abundant phenolic compounds in coffee, with caffeoylquinic (CQA), feruloylquinic (FQA), and dicaffeoylquinic (diCQA) acids being the major subclasses, and coffee is the most consumed food product in the world. Isoferulic acid is present in normal human urine in concentrations of 0.05-2.07 umol/mmol creatinine at baseline, and reaches 0.2-9.6 umol/mmol creatinine in four hours after a cup of coffee, with a large inter-individual variation (PMID:17884997).
Pentadecanoic acid, also known as pentadecylic acid or C15:0, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as long-chain fatty acids. These are fatty acids with an aliphatic tail that contains between 13 and 21 carbon atoms. Pentadecanoic acid (its ester is called pentadecanoate) is a saturated fatty acid that has 15 carbons and is therefore a very hydrophobic molecule that is practically insoluble in water.  Pentadecanoic acid is found in plants and ruminants. Many "odd" length long-chain fatty acids, such as pentadecanoic acid, are derived from the consumption of cattle fats (milk and meat). Pentadecanoic acid constitutes 1.05% of milk fat and 0.43% of ruminant meat fat. The content of pentadecanoic acid in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of humans appears to be a good biological marker of long-term milk fat intake in free-living individuals in populations with high consumption of dairy products. (PMID: 9701185; PMID: 11238766).
Kanamycin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces kanamyceticus from Japanese soil. Comprises 3 components: kanamycin A, the major component, and kanamycins B and C, the minor components. [PubChem]Aminoglycosides like kanamycin "irreversibly" bind to specific 30S-subunit proteins and 16S rRNA. Specifically Kanamycin binds to four nucleotides of 16S rRNA and a single amino acid of protein S12. This interferes with decoding site in the vicinity of nucleotide 1400 in 16S rRNA of 30S subunit. This region interacts with the wobble base in the anticodon of tRNA. This leads to interference with the initiation complex, misreading of mRNA so incorrect amino acids are inserted into the polypeptide leading to nonfunctional or toxic peptides and the breakup of polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.
Kanamycin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces kanamyceticus from Japanese soil. Comprises 3 components: kanamycin A, the major component, and kanamycins B and C, the minor components. [PubChem]Aminoglycosides like kanamycin "irreversibly" bind to specific 30S-subunit proteins and 16S rRNA. Specifically Kanamycin binds to four nucleotides of 16S rRNA and a single amino acid of protein S12. This interferes with decoding site in the vicinity of nucleotide 1400 in 16S rRNA of 30S subunit. This region interacts with the wobble base in the anticodon of tRNA. This leads to interference with the initiation complex, misreading of mRNA so incorrect amino acids are inserted into the polypeptide leading to nonfunctional or toxic peptides and the breakup of polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.
Kanamycin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces kanamyceticus from Japanese soil. Comprises 3 components: kanamycin A, the major component, and kanamycins B and C, the minor components. [PubChem]Aminoglycosides like kanamycin "irreversibly" bind to specific 30S-subunit proteins and 16S rRNA. Specifically Kanamycin binds to four nucleotides of 16S rRNA and a single amino acid of protein S12. This interferes with decoding site in the vicinity of nucleotide 1400 in 16S rRNA of 30S subunit. This region interacts with the wobble base in the anticodon of tRNA. This leads to interference with the initiation complex, misreading of mRNA so incorrect amino acids are inserted into the polypeptide leading to nonfunctional or toxic peptides and the breakup of polysomes into nonfunctional monosomes.
Creatinine, or creatine anhydride, is a breakdown product of creatine phosphate in muscle. The loss of a water molecule from creatine results in the formation of creatinine. Creatinine is transferred to the kidneys by blood plasma, whereupon it is eliminated from the body by glomerular filtration and partial tubular excretion. Creatinine is usually produced at a fairly constant rate by the body. Measuring serum creatinine is a simple test and it is the most commonly used indicator of renal function. A rise in blood creatinine levels is observed only with marked damage to functioning nephrons. Therefore, this test is not suitable for detecting early kidney disease. The typical reference range for women is considered about 45-90 µmol/L; for men 60-110 µmol/L. Creatine and creatinine are metabolized in the kidneys, muscle, liver, and pancreas.
N-acetyl-5-aminosalicylic acid is a metabolite of mesalazine. Mesalazine, also known as mesalamine or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), is an anti-inflammatory drug used to treat inflammatory bowel disease, such as ulcerative colitis and mild-to-moderate Crohn's disease. Mesalazine is a bowel-specific aminosalicylate drug that acts locally in the gut and has its predominant actions there, thereby having few systemic side effects. (Wikipedia)
Capecitabine is an orally-administered chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of metastatic breast and colorectal cancers. Capecitabine is a prodrug, that is enzymatically converted to fluorouracil (antimetabolite) in the tumor, where it inhibits DNA synthesis and slows growth of tumor tissue.
Tamoxifen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the selective estrogen receptor modulators with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the endometrium. [PubChem]Tamoxifen binds to estrogen receptors (ER), inducing a conformational change in the receptor. This results in a blockage or change in the expression of estrogen dependent genes. The prolonged binding of tamoxifen to the nuclear chromatin of these results in reduced DNA polymerase activity, impaired thymidine utilization, blockade of estradiol uptake, and decreased estrogen response. It is likely that tamoxifen interacts with other coactivators or corepressors in the tissue and binds with different estrogen receptors, ER-alpha or ER-beta, producing both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects.
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Bosentan is a dual endothelin receptor antagonist important in the treatment of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). It is licensed in the United States, the European Union and other countries by Actelion Pharmaceuticals for the management of PAH under the trade name Tracleer&reg. Bosentan is used to treat pulmonary hypertension by blocking the action of endothelin molecules that would otherwise promote narrowing of the blood vessels and lead to high blood pressure.
4-Hydroxychlorothalonil (SDS 3701) is a metabolite of the widely used fungicide chlorothalonil which is used to manage fungal diseases affecting agricultural crops around the world (PMID: 31265862). 4-Hydroxychlorothalonil was identified as one of forty plasma metabolites that could be used to predict gut microbiome Shannon diversity (PMID: 31477923). Shannon diversity is a metric that summarizes both species abundance and evenness, and it has been suggested as a marker for microbiome health.
A study of the effects of chlorpyrifos on humans exposed over time showed that people exposed to high levels have autoimmune antibodies that are common in people with autoimmune disorders. There is a strong correlation to chronic illness associated with autoimmune disorders after exposure to chlorpyrifos. Among 50 farm pesticides studied, chlorpyrifos was one of two found to be associated with higher risks of lung cancer among frequent pesticide applicators than among infrequent or non-users. Pesticide applicators as a whole were found to have a 50% lower cancer risk than the general public, which is attributable to the nearly 50% lower smoking rate found among farm workers. However, applicators of chlorpyrifos had a 15% lower cancer risk than the general public, which the study suggests indicates a likely link between chlorpyrifos application and lung cancer. Chlorpyrifos (IUPAC name: O,O-diethyl O-3,5,6-trichloropyridin-2-yl phosphorothioate) is a crystalline organophosphate insecticide. It was introduced in 1965 by Dow Chemical Company and is known by many trade names (see table), including Dursban and Lorsban. It acts on the nervous system of insects by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphate, with potential for both acute toxicity at larger amounts and neurological effects in fetuses and children even at very small amounts. For acute effects, the EPA classifies chlorpyrifos as Class II: moderately toxic. The oral LD50 for chlorpyrifos in experimental animals is 32 to 1000 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is greater than 2000 mg/kg and 1000 to 2000 mg/kg in rabbits. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for chlorpyrifos in rats is greater than 200 mg/m3. First registered in 1965 and marketed by Dow Chemical under the tradenames Dursban, Lorsban and Renoban, chlorpyrifos was a well known home and garden insecticide, and at one time it was one of the most widely used household pesticides in the US.
2,4,6-Tribromophenol, also known as 2,4,6-TBP or bromol, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-bromophenols. These are bromophenols carrying a iodine at the C4 position of the benzene ring. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol has been detected, but not quantified, in a few different foods, such as crustaceans, fishes, and mollusks. This could make 2,4,6-tribromophenol a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. A bromophenol that is phenol in which the hydrogens at positions 2, 4 and 6 have been replaced by bromines. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol is a potentially toxic compound.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
Captopril is a potent, competitive inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Captopril may be used in the treatment of hypertension.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Flusilazole is found in cereals and cereal products. Highly potent broad-spectrum fungicide. Controls broad spectrum of diseases on economically important crops.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries
Verapamil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Verapamil is a calcium channel blocker that is a class IV anti-arrhythmia agent. [PubChem]Verapamil inhibits voltage-dependent calcium channels. Specifically, its effect on L-type calcium channels in the heart causes a reduction in ionotropy and chronotropy, thuis reducing heart rate and blood pressure. Verapamil's mechanism of effect in cluster headache is thought to be linked to its calcium-channel blocker effect, but which channel subtypes are involved is presently not known. [PubChem] Calcium channel antagonists can be quite toxic. In the management of poisoning, early recognition is critical. Calcium channel antagonists are frequently prescribed, and the potential for serious morbidity and mortality with over dosage is significant. Ingestion of these agents should be suspected in any patient who presents in an overdose situation with unexplained hypotension and conduction abnormalities. The potential for toxicity should be noted in patients with underlying hepatic or renal dysfunction who are receiving therapeutic doses. (PMID 8213877).
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Oxybutynin is an anticholinergic medication used to relieve urinary and bladder difficulties, including frequent urination and inability to control urination, by decreasing muscle spasms of the bladder. It competitively antagonizes the M1, M2, and M3 subtypes of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
Diatrizoate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a commonly used x-ray contrast medium. As diatrizoate meglumine and as Diatrizoate sodium, it is used for gastrointestinal studies, angiography, and urography. [PubChem]Diatrizoate is an iodine-containing X-ray contrast agent. Iodated contrast agents were among the first contrast agents developed. Iodine is known to be particular electron-dense and to effectively scatter or stop X-rays. A good contrast agent requires a high density of electron-dense atoms. Therefore, the more iodine, the more "dense" the x-ray effect. Iodine based contrast media are water soluble and harmless to the body. These contrast agents are sold as clear colorless water solutions, the concentration is usually expressed as mg I/ml. Modern iodinated contrast agents can be used almost anywhere in the body. Most often they are used intravenously, but for various purposes they can also be used intraarterially, intrathecally (the spine) and intraabdominally - just about any body cavity or potential space.
Omeprazole is a highly effective inhibitor of gastric acid secretion used in the therapy of stomach ulcers, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer disease , gastroesophageal reflux disease and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. The drug inhibits the H(+)-K(+)-ATPase (H(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase) in the proton pump of Gastric Parietal Cells.--Pubchem. Omeprazole is one of the most widely prescribed drugs internationally and is available over the counter in some countries.
Valsartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used to treat a variety of cardiac conditions including hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and heart failure. Valsartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Valsartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Temazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine that acts as a gamma-aminobutyric acid modulator and anti-anxiety agent. [PubChem]Benzodiazepines bind nonspecifically to benzodiazepine receptors, which affects muscle relaxation, anticonvulsant activity, motor coordination, and memory. As benzodiazepine receptors are thought to be coupled to gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA<sub>A</sub>) receptors, this enhances the effects of GABA by increasing GABA affinity for the GABA receptor. Binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the site opens the chloride channel, resulting in a hyperpolarized cell membrane that prevents further excitation of the cell.
2,6-Dimethylpyridine is found in alcoholic beverages. 2,6-Dimethylpyridine is present in bread, tea and whisky. 2,6-Dimethylpyridine is a flavouring agent 2,6-Lutidine is a natural heterocyclic aromatic organic compound. It has been isolated from the basic fraction of coal tar and from bone oil. It is a dimethyl substituted derivative of pyridine.
2-Aminobenzoic acid, also known as anthranilic acid or O-aminobenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as aminobenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids containing an amine group attached to the benzene moiety. Within humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 2-aminobenzoic acid and formic acid can be biosynthesized from formylanthranilic acid through its interaction with the enzyme kynurenine formamidase. In addition, 2-aminobenzoic acid and L-alanine can be biosynthesized from L-kynurenine through its interaction with the enzyme kynureninase. It is a substrate of enzyme 2-Aminobenzoic acid hydroxylase in benzoate degradation via hydroxylation pathway (KEGG). In humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid is involved in tryptophan metabolism. Outside of the human body, 2-Aminobenzoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mamey sapotes, prairie turnips, rowals, natal plums, and hyacinth beans. This could make 2-aminobenzoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 2-Aminobenzoic acid is a is a tryptophan-derived uremic toxin with multidirectional properties that can affect the hemostatic system. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma.
Memantine is an amantadine derivative with low to moderate-affinity for NMDA receptors. It is a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that binds preferentially to NMDA receptor-operated cation channels. It blocks the effects of excessive levels of glutamate that may lead to neuronal dysfunction. It is under investigation for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, but there has been no clinical support for the prevention or slowing of disease progression.
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattl
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Fluvoxamine is an antidepressant which functions pharmacologically as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Though it is in the same class as other SSRI drugs, it is most often used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder. Fluvoxamine has been in use in clinical practice since 1983 and has a clinical trial database comprised of approximately 35,000 patients. It was launched in the US in December 1994 and in Japan in June 1999. As of the end of 1995, more than 10 million patients worldwide have been treated with fluvoxamine.
Benzylamine, also known as a-aminotoluene or moringine, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylmethylamines. Phenylmethylamines are compounds containing a phenylmethtylamine moiety, which consists of a phenyl group substituted by an methanamine. Benzylamine is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as corns, white cabbages, and cabbages and in a lower concentration in wild carrots, carrots, and apples. Benzylamine has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as common chokecherries, black cabbages, macadamia nut (m. tetraphylla), ginsengs, and lettuces. This could make benzylamine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
Torasemide (rINN) or torsemide (USAN) is a pyridine-sulfonylurea type loop diuretic mainly used in the management of edema associated with congestive heart failure. It is also used at low doses for the management of hypertension. It is marketed under the brand name Demadex. [Wikipedia]
Fluoxetine hydrochloride is the first agent of the class of antidepressants known as selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Despite distinct structural differences between compounds in this class, SSRIs possess similar pharmacological activity. As with other antidepressant agents, several weeks of therapy may be required before a clinical effect is seen. SSRIs are potent inhibitors of neuronal serotonin reuptake. They have little to no effect on norepinephrine or dopamine reuptake and do not antagonize α- or β-adrenergic, dopamine D<sub>2</sub> or histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors. During acute use, SSRIs block serotonin reuptake and increase serotonin stimulation of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. Chronic use leads to desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. The overall clinical effect of increased mood and decreased anxiety is thought to be due to adaptive changes in neuronal function that lead to enhanced serotonergic neurotransmission. Side effects include dry mouth, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, sexual dysfunction, and headache. Side effects generally occur within the first two weeks of therapy and are usually less severe and frequent than those observed with tricyclic antidepressants. Fluoxetine may be used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD), moderate to severe bulimia nervosa, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, and, in combination with olanzapine, for treatment-resistant or bipolar I depression. Fluoxetine is the most anorexic and stimulating SSRI.
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
Mebendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole that acts by interfering with carbohydrate metabolism and inhibiting polymerization of microtubules. [PubChem]Mebendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Losartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. Losartan and its longer acting metabolite, E-3174, lower blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); they compete with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Losartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Ectoparasiticide. Insect growth regulator. Specific activity against dipterous larvae. Cyromazine is a fda approved for use in livestoc
omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3, also known as Prochloraz-MN, is classified as a member of the Phenol ethers. Phenol ethers are aromatic compounds containing an ether group substituted with a benzene ring. omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic.  omega-COOH-tetranor-LTE3 is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound
4-aminophenol is considered a minor nephrotoxic metabolite of phenacetin and acetaminophen (paracetamol) in man. 4-Aminophenol can undergo autoxidations and metal-catalyzed and enzymatic oxidations in man to produce reactive oxygen species. (PMID 1713494).
Nonivamide, also known as pseudocapsaicin or hansaplast, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as methoxyphenols. Methoxyphenols are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety. Nonivamide is odorless and a bland tasting compound. Nonivamide is found, on average, in the highest concentration within a few different foods, such as yellow bell peppers, red bell peppers, and pepper (C. frutescens) and in a lower concentration in pepper (C. annuum), orange bell peppers, and green bell peppers. Nonivamide has also been detected, but not quantified, in herbs and spices. This could make nonivamide a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Limited information is available on pharmacokinetics and metabolism of nonivamide. Agonism of the VR1 (TRPV1) (vanilloid) receptor by Nonivamide was demonstrated to induce the release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of human lung cells, producing ER stress and cell death . The cardiovascular effects are partly explained by substance P release. Administered intraperitoneally, the LD50 in rats was measured to be about 90 mg/kg. Nonivamide has been shown to stimulate afferent neurons with about half the potency of Capsaicin (PMID:6202305).
Irbesartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) used mainly for the treatment of hypertension. It competes with angiotensin II for binding at the AT1 receptor subtype. Unlike ACE inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. The use of ARBs is pending revision due to findings from several clinical trials suggesting that this class of drugs may be associated with a small increased risk of cancer.
6-Chloro-N-(1-methylethyl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine is a major soil metabolite of Atrazine <ht>DKW85-F</ht>. Environmental pollutant of soil and water.
Benzocaine is a surface anesthetic that acts by preventing transmission of impulses along nerve fibers and at nerve endings. Benzocaine is a local anesthetic commonly used as a topical pain reliever. It is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter analgesic ointments. Benzocaine is an ester, a compound made from the organic acid PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) and ethanol. The process in which this ester is created is known as Fischer esterification.
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Piperidine (Azinane after the Hantzsch Widman nomenclature) is an organic compound with the molecular formula (CH2)5NH. This heterocyclic amine consists of a six-membered ring containing five methylene units and one nitrogen atom. It is a colorless fuming liquid with an odor described as ammoniacal, pepper-like; the name comes from the genus name Piper, which is the Latin word for pepper. Piperidine is found in barley, black pepper (Piper nigrum). Piperidine has been found to be a microbial metabolite. Piperidine is a flavouring agent and it is also widely used as a building block and chemical reagent in the synthesis of organic compounds, including pharmaceuticals. Piperidine is a widely used secondary amine. It is used to convert ketones to enamines. Enamines derived from piperidine can be used in the Stork enamine alkylation reaction. Piperidine is used as a solvent and as a base. The same is true for certain derivatives: N-formylpiperidine is a polar aprotic solvent with better hydrocarbon solubility than other amide solvents, and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine is highly sterically hindered base, useful because of its low nucleophilicity and high solubility in organic solvents.
Oxybenzone is an organic compound used in sunscreens. It is a derivative of benzophenone. It forms colorless crystals that are readily soluble in most organic solvents. It is used as an ingredient in sunscreen and other cosmetics because it absorbs UV-A ultraviolet rays.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the corpus luteum and the placenta. Progesterone acts on the uterus, the mammary glands and the brain. It is required in embryo implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for milk production. Progesterone, converted from pregnenolone, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of gonadal steroid hormones and adrenal corticosteroids. Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. Progesterone belongs to a class of hormones called progestagens, and is the major naturally occurring human progestagen. During implantation and gestation, progesterone appears to decrease the maternal immune response to allow for the acceptance of the pregnancy. Progesterone decreases contractility of the uterine smooth muscle. The fetus metabolizes placental progesterone in the production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids. A drop in progesterone levels is possibly one step that facilitates the onset of labor. In addition progesterone inhibits lactation during pregnancy. The fall in progesterone levels following delivery is one of the triggers for milk production. Progesterone is found to be associated with pregnene hydroxylation deficiency, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Thiazole is a flavouring ingredient The thiazole moiety is a crucial part of vitamin B1 (thiamine) and epothilone. Other important thiazoles are benzothiazoles, for example, the firefly chemical luciferin. Thiazole, or 1,3-thiazole, is a clear to pale yellow flammable liquid with a pyridine-like odor and the molecular formula C3H3NS. It is a 5-membered ring, in which two of the vertices of the ring are nitrogen and sulfur, and the other three are carbons. Thiazoles are a class of organic compounds related to azoles with a common thiazole functional group. Thiazoles are aromatic
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
2,6-Dimethylaniline is a metabolite of lidocaine. Lidocaine, Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery. (Wikipedia)
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception. [PubChem]
Mesalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anti-inflammatory agent, structurally related to the salicylates, which is active in inflammatory bowel disease. It is considered to be the active moiety of sulphasalazine. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed)Although the mechanism of action of mesalazine is not fully understood, it appears to be topical rather than systemic. Mucosal production of arachidonic acid metabolites, both through the cyclooxygenase pathways, i.e., prostanoids, and through the lipoxygenase pathways, i.e., leukotrienes and hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids, is increased in patients with chronic inflammatory bowel disease, and it is possible that mesalazine diminishes inflammation by blocking cyclooxygenase and inhibiting prostaglandin production in the colon.
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Monoisobutyl phthalic acid is a phthalate metabolite that has been found in human meconium and in semen (PMID: 16970347), saliva (PMID: 15995852), and urine (PMID: 15113553). Phthalate esters are a family of multifunctional compounds widely used as plasticizers, solvents, or additives in many diverse products such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) materials, pharmaceuticals and medical devices, pesticides, lubricants, and personal care products. Humans have been exposed to phthalates through the manufacture, ubiquitous use, and disposal of PVC materials and other phthalate-containing products. (PMID: 16970347).
Fenofibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent which reduces both cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. [PubChem]Fenofibrate exerts its therapeutic effects through activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor a (PPARa). This increases lipolysis and elimination of triglyceride-rich particles from plasma by activating lipoprotein lipase and reducing production of apoprotein C-III. The resulting fall in triglycerides produces an alteration in the size and composition of LDL from small, dense particles, to large buoyant particles. These larger particles have a greater affinity for cholesterol receptors and are catabolized rapidly.
Diclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt. [PubChem]The antiinflammatory effects of diclofenac are believed to be due to inhibition of both leukocyte migration and the enzyme cylooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), leading to the peripheral inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. As prostaglandins sensitize pain receptors, inhibition of their synthesis is responsible for the analgesic effects of diclofenac. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Promethazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine derivative with histamine H1-blocking, antimuscarinic, and sedative properties. It is used as an antiallergic, in pruritus, for motion sickness and sedation, and also in animals. [PubChem]Like other H1-antagonists, promethazine competes with free histamine for binding at H1-receptor sites in the GI tract, uterus, large blood vessels, and bronchial muscle. The relief of nausea appears to be related to central anticholinergic actions and may implicate activity on the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone.
Ketoprofen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a propionic acid derivative and is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with analgesic and antipyretic properties. The anti-inflammatory effects of ketoprofen are believed to be due to inhibition cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme involved in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. This results in decreased levels of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever and inflammation. Ketoprofen is a non-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor and inhibition of COX-1 is thought to confer some of its side effects, such as GI upset and ulceration. Ketoprofen is thought to have anti-bradykinin activity, as well as lysosomal membrane-stabilizing action. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Bosentan is a dual endothelin receptor antagonist important in the treatment of pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). It is licensed in the United States, the European Union and other countries by Actelion Pharmaceuticals for the management of PAH under the trade name Tracleer&reg. Bosentan is used to treat pulmonary hypertension by blocking the action of endothelin molecules that would otherwise promote narrowing of the blood vessels and lead to high blood pressure.
A chlorinated bisphenol antiseptic with a bacteriostatic action against Gram-positive organisms, but much less effective against Gram-negative organisms. It is mainly used in soaps and creams and is an ingredient of various preparations used for skin disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p797)
Irbesartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) used mainly for the treatment of hypertension. It competes with angiotensin II for binding at the AT1 receptor subtype. Unlike ACE inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. The use of ARBs is pending revision due to findings from several clinical trials suggesting that this class of drugs may be associated with a small increased risk of cancer.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Azelastine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phthalazine derivative, and is an antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer available as a nasal spray for hay fever and as eye drops for allergic conjunctivitis.Azelastine competes with histamine for the H1-receptor sites on effector cells and acts as an antagonist by inhibiting the release of histamine and other mediators involved in the allergic response.
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt
Domperidone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a specific blocker of dopamine receptors. It speeds gastrointestinal peristalsis, causes prolactin release, and is used as antiemetic and tool in the study of dopaminergic mechanisms. [PubChem]Domperidone acts as a gastrointestinal emptying (delayed) adjunct and peristaltic stimulant. The gastroprokinetic properties of domperidone are related to its peripheral dopamine receptor blocking properties. Domperidone facilitates gastric emptying and decreases small bowel transit time by increasing esophageal and gastric peristalsis and by lowering esophageal sphincter pressure. Antiemetic: The antiemetic properties of domperidone are related to its dopamine receptor blocking activity at both the chemoreceptor trigger zone and at the gastric level. It has strong affinities for the D2 and D3 dopamine receptors, which are found in the chemoreceptor trigger zone, located just outside the blood brain barrier, which - among others - regulates nausea and vomiting
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
A tricylic dibenzodiazepine, classified as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It binds several types of central nervous system receptors, and displays a unique pharmacological profile. Clozapine is a serotonin antagonist, with strong binding to 5-HT 2A/2C receptor subtype. It also displays strong affinity to several dopaminergic receptors, but shows only weak antagonism at the dopamine D2 receptor, a receptor commonly thought to modulate neuroleptic activity. Agranulocytosis is a major adverse effect associated with administration of this agent. [PubChem]
Quercetin is a flavonoid that forms the "backbone" for many other flavonoids, including the citrus flavonoids rutin, hesperidin, naringin and tangeritin. In studies, quercetin is found to be the most active of the flavonoids, and many medicinal plants owe much of their activity to their high quercetin content. Quercetin has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity because of direct inhibition of several initial processes of inflammation. For example, it inhibits both the manufacture and release of histamine and other allergic/inflammatory mediators. In addition, it exerts potent antioxidant activity and vitamin C-sparing action. -- Wikipedia.
Ethylparaben, also known as e-214 or aseptin a, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. It is used as an antifungal preservative. Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate, the sodium salt of ethylparaben, has the same uses and is given the E number E215. Ethylparaben is a drug. Its formula is HO-C6H4-CO-O-CH2CH3. Ethylparaben is a mild and phenolic tasting compound. ethylparaben has been detected, but not quantified, in alcoholic beverages. This could make ethylparaben a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Ethylparaben (ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate) is the ethyl ester of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Ethylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. As a food additive, it has E number E214.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries
Diclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt. [PubChem]The antiinflammatory effects of diclofenac are believed to be due to inhibition of both leukocyte migration and the enzyme cylooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), leading to the peripheral inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. As prostaglandins sensitize pain receptors, inhibition of their synthesis is responsible for the analgesic effects of diclofenac. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Captopril is a potent, competitive inhibitor of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Captopril may be used in the treatment of hypertension.
Triclosan is an antibacterial and antifungal agent. It is a polychloro phenoxy phenol. It is widely used as a preservative and antimicrobial agent in personal care products such as soaps, skin creams, toothpaste and deodorants as well as in household items such as plastic chopping boards, sports equipment and shoes. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) at the present time there is no evidence that triclosan in personal care products provides an extra benefit to health beyond its anti-gingivitis effect in toothpaste. The FDA does not recommend changing consumer use of triclosan containing products one way or the other due to currently insufficient safety evidence. Studies by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found triclosan to be an effective antibacterial. Triclosan safety is currently under review by the FDA and Health Canada. Triclosan is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. 
Imidazole is an organic compound with the formula C3N2H4. It is a white or colourless solid that is soluble in water, producing a mildly alkaline solution. In chemistry, it is an aromatic heterocycle, classified as a diazole, and has non-adjacent nitrogen atoms. Imidazole is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound. It is classified as an alkaloid. The ring system of the molecule is present in important biological building blocks such as histidine and histamine. Imidazole can act as a base and as a weak acid. Imidazole exists in two tautomeric forms with the hydrogen atom moving between the two nitrogens. Many drugs contain an imidazole ring, such as antifungal drugs and nitroimidazole. Imidazole is a 5 membered planar ring which is soluble in water and polar solvents. Imidazole is a base and an excellent nucleophile. It reacts at the NH nitrogen, attacking alkylating and acylating compounds. It is not particularly susceptible to electrophilic attacks at the carbon atoms, and most of these reactions are substitutions that keep the aromaticity intact. One can see from the resonance structure that the carbon-2 is the carbon most likely to have a nucleophile attack it, but in general nucleophilic substitutions are difficult with imidazole. Imidazole is incorporated into many important biological molecules. The most obvious is the amino acid histidine, which has an imidazole side chain. histidine is present in many proteins and enzymes and plays a vital part in the structure and binding functions of hemoglobin.
N-Phenyl-2-naphthylamine is found in root vegetables. N-Phenyl-2-naphthylamine is a constituent of Daucus carota (carrot).
Imatinib is a drug used to treat certain types of cancer. It is currently marketed by Novartis as Gleevec (USA) or Glivec (Europe/Australia) as its mesylate salt, imatinib mesilate (INN). It is occasionally referred to as CGP57148B or STI571 (especially in older publications). It is used in treating chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and a number of other malignancies. It is the first member of a new class of agents that act by inhibiting particular tyrosine kinase enzymes, instead of non-specifically inhibiting rapidly dividing cells.
Candesartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. It is administered orally as the prodrug, candesartan cilexetil, which is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, candesartan, during absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Candesartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Candesartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Losartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. Losartan and its longer acting metabolite, E-3174, lower blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); they compete with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Losartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure.
Duloxetine (brand names Cymbalta, Yentreve, and in parts of Europe, Xeristar or Ariclaim) is a drug which primarily targets major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), pain related to diabetic peripheral neuropathy and in some countries stress urinary incontinence (SUI). It is manufactured and marketed by Eli Lilly and Company. Duloxetine has not yet been FDA approved for stress urinary incontinence or for fibromyalgia. Duloxetine is a selective SNRI (selective serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor). Duloxetine is a systemic drug therapy which affects the body as a whole. Known also under the code name LY248686, it is a potent dual reuptake inhibitor of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE), possessing comparable affinities in binding to NE- and 5-HT transporter sites. It is a less potent inhibitor of dopamine reuptake.
Monoisobutyl phthalic acid is a phthalate metabolite that has been found in human meconium and in semen (PMID: 16970347), saliva (PMID: 15995852), and urine (PMID: 15113553). Phthalate esters are a family of multifunctional compounds widely used as plasticizers, solvents, or additives in many diverse products such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) materials, pharmaceuticals and medical devices, pesticides, lubricants, and personal care products. Humans have been exposed to phthalates through the manufacture, ubiquitous use, and disposal of PVC materials and other phthalate-containing products. (PMID: 16970347).
2-(methylthio)benzothiazole, also known as mtbt, is a member of the class of compounds known as benzothiazoles. Benzothiazoles are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom). 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole is practically insoluble (in water) and a moderately basic compound (based on its pKa). 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole can be found in guava, which makes 2-(methylthio)benzothiazole a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Orlistat is a drug designed to treat obesity. Its primary function is preventing the absorption of fats from the human diet, thereby reducing caloric intake. Orlistat works by inhibiting pancreatic lipase, an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides in the intestine. Without this enzyme, triglycerides from the diet are prevented from being hydrolyzed into absorbable free fatty acids and are excreted undigested.
Sertraline is a selective serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used in the treatment of depression. Sertraline hydrochloride (also labeled under numerous brand names: Zoloft, Sertralin, Lustral, Apo-Sertral, Asentra, Gladem, Serlift, Stimuloton, Xydep, Serlain, Concorz) is an orally administered antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) type. It was first approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1991. Sertraline is an odorless, white, sparingly soluble crystalline solid. The minimum effective dose is usually 50 mg per day (it can be still effective at 25 mg or 37.5 mg), but lower doses may be used in the initial weeks of treatment to acclimate the patient's body, especially the liver, to the drug and to minimize the severity of any side effects. Patients who do not experience relief of symptoms at 50 mg a day may have their dose increased, up to 200 mg a day. Sertraline (HCl) is used medically mainly to treat the symptoms of depression and anxiety. It is also prescribed for the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), panic disorder (PD) and social phobia/social anxiety disorder. A study has shown that sertraline is an effective treatment for impulsive aggressive behavior in personality disordered patients.
An analgesic and antipyretic that has been given by mouth and as ear drops. Antipyrine is often used in testing the effects of other drugs or diseases on drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p29)
2,6-Dimethylaniline is a metabolite of lidocaine. Lidocaine, Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery. (Wikipedia)
Glimepiride is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the first III generation sulphonyl urea it is a very potent sulphonyl urea with long duration of action.The mechanism of action of glimepiride in lowering blood glucose appears to be dependent on stimulating the release of insulin from functioning pancreatic beta cells, and increasing sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin. Glimepiride likely binds to ATP-sensitive potassium channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Membrane depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels. This increase in intracellular calcium ion concentration induces the secretion of insulin.
2-Methylbenzothiazole is found in tea. Known as an aroma constituent of tea leaves.
Benzamide is an intermediate in the Benzoate degradation via CoA ligation. Benzamides are a class of chemical compounds derived from Benzamid, the carbonic acid amide of benzoic acid. In psychiatry some substituted benzamides are therapeutically used as neuroleptics and/or antipsychotics (wikipedia).
Sulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)Sulfonamides inhibit the enzymatic conversion of pteridine and p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to dihydropteroic acid by competing with PABA for binding to dihydrofolate synthetase, an intermediate of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis. THF is required for the synthesis of purines and dTMP and inhibition of its synthesis inhibits bacterial growth. Pyrimethamine and trimethoprim inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, another step in THF synthesis, and therefore act synergistically with the sulfonamides.
Saccharin, ammonium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States). Saccharin belongs to the family of aromatic homomonocyclic compounds. These are aromatic compounds containing only one ring, which is homocyclic.
Bifonazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an azole antifungal drug. [Wikipedia]Bifonazole works by inhibiting the production of a substance called ergosterol, which is an essential component of fungal cell membranes.It acts to destabilize the fungal cyctochrome p450 51 enzyme (also known as Lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase). This is vital in the cell membrance structure of the fungus. Its inhibition leads to cell lysis. The disruption in production of ergosterol disrupts the cell membrane and causes holes to appear. The cell membranes of fungi are vital for their survival. They keep unwanted substances from entering the cells and stop the contents of the cells from leaking out. As bifonazole causes holes to appear in the cell membranes, essential constituents of the fungal cells can leak out. This kills the fungi.
Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB) used in the management of hypertension. Generally, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) such as telmisartan bind to the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors with high affinity, causing inhibition of the action of angiotensin II on vascular smooth muscle, ultimately leading to a reduction in arterial blood pressure. Recent studies suggest that telmisartan may also have PPAR-gamma agonistic properties that could potentially confer beneficial metabolic effects.
Acaricide and weed kille
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
1-Methyl-6-phenyl-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-amine is a food-related mutagen, reported to be the most abundant heterocyclic amine found in cooked meat and fish.
Oxybenzone is an organic compound used in sunscreens. It is a derivative of benzophenone. It forms colorless crystals that are readily soluble in most organic solvents. It is used as an ingredient in sunscreen and other cosmetics because it absorbs UV-A ultraviolet rays.
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Dichlorvos is used as a household and public health fumigant, for crop protection and as an anthelmintic in animal feeds.Dichlorvos or 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate (DDVP) is a highly volatile organophosphate, widely used as a insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored product from insects. It is effective against mushroom flies, aphids, spider mites, caterpillars, thrips, and whiteflies in greenhouse, outdoor fruit, and vegetable crops. (Wikipedia
Ondansetron is a well tolerated drug with few side effects. Headache, constipation, and dizziness are the most commonly reported side effects associated with its use. There have been no significant drug interactions reported with this drugs use. It is broken down by the hepatic cytochrome P450 system and it has little effect on the metabolism of other drugs broken down by this system; Ondansetron is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used mainly to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its effects are thought to be on both peripheral and central nerves. One part is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata, the other is a blockage of serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It does not have much effect on vomiting due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors; A competitive serotonin type 3 receptor antagonist. It is effective in the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs, including cisplatin, and has reported anxiolytic and neuroleptic properties; Ondansetron (INN) is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used mainly to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its effects are thought to be on both peripheral and central nerves. One part is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata, the other is a blockage of serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It does not have much effect on vomiting due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
iso-nLc8Cer, also known as Cumidine or 4-(1-Methylethyl)a0ine, is classified as a member of the Cumenes. Cumenes are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety. iso-nLc8Cer is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and basic
Monoethyl phthalate (mEtP) is a metabolite, or breakdown product, of diethyl phthalate, used in perfume, cologne, deodorant, soap, shampoo, lotion, and other personal care products, particularly those containing fragrance.
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
Losartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. Losartan and its longer acting metabolite, E-3174, lower blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); they compete with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Losartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries
Fenthion is an insecticide with low mammalian toxicity. Fenthion is used in agriculture and against mosquito larvae in tropical fresh waters.Fenthion is an organothiophosphate insecticide, avicide, and acaricide. Like most other organophosphates, its mode of action is via cholinesterase inhibition. Due to its relatively low toxicity towards humans and mammals, fenthion is listed as moderately toxic compound in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization toxicity class. (Wikipedia).
Benzocaine is a surface anesthetic that acts by preventing transmission of impulses along nerve fibers and at nerve endings. Benzocaine is a local anesthetic commonly used as a topical pain reliever. It is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter analgesic ointments. Benzocaine is an ester, a compound made from the organic acid PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) and ethanol. The process in which this ester is created is known as Fischer esterification.
Torasemide (rINN) or torsemide (USAN) is a pyridine-sulfonylurea type loop diuretic mainly used in the management of edema associated with congestive heart failure. It is also used at low doses for the management of hypertension. It is marketed under the brand name Demadex. [Wikipedia]
4-Methoxycinnamic acid, also known as para-methoxycinnamate or O-methyl-p-coumarate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as cinnamic acids. These are organic aromatic compounds containing a benzene and a carboxylic acid group forming 3-phenylprop-2-enoic acid. Outside of the human body, 4-Methoxycinnamic acid is found, on average, in the highest concentration within turmerics. 4-Methoxycinnamic acid has also been detected, but not quantified in cow milk and wild celeries. This could make 4-methoxycinnamic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods.
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
2-Aminobenzoic acid, also known as anthranilic acid or O-aminobenzoate, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as aminobenzoic acids. These are benzoic acids containing an amine group attached to the benzene moiety. Within humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, 2-aminobenzoic acid and formic acid can be biosynthesized from formylanthranilic acid through its interaction with the enzyme kynurenine formamidase. In addition, 2-aminobenzoic acid and L-alanine can be biosynthesized from L-kynurenine through its interaction with the enzyme kynureninase. It is a substrate of enzyme 2-Aminobenzoic acid hydroxylase in benzoate degradation via hydroxylation pathway (KEGG). In humans, 2-aminobenzoic acid is involved in tryptophan metabolism. Outside of the human body, 2-Aminobenzoic acid has been detected, but not quantified in several different foods, such as mamey sapotes, prairie turnips, rowals, natal plums, and hyacinth beans. This could make 2-aminobenzoic acid a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. 2-Aminobenzoic acid is a is a tryptophan-derived uremic toxin with multidirectional properties that can affect the hemostatic system. Uremic syndrome may affect any part of the body and can cause nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. It can also cause changes in mental status, such as confusion, reduced awareness, agitation, psychosis, seizures, and coma.
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
Mebendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole that acts by interfering with carbohydrate metabolism and inhibiting polymerization of microtubules. [PubChem]Mebendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol, also known as 2-Hydroxyatrazine, is classified as a member of the 1,3,5-triazines. 1,3,5-triazines are compounds containing a triazine ring, which is a heterocyclic ring, similar to the six-member benzene ring but with three carbons replaced by nitrogen atoms, at ring positions 1, 3, and 5. 4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral
Triamcinolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p739)The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve lipocortins, phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins which, through inhibition of arachidonic acid, control the biosynthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Firstly, however, these glucocorticoids bind to the glucocorticoid receptors which translocate into the nucleus and bind DNA (GRE) and change genetic expression both positively and negatively. The immune system is suppressed by corticosteroids due to a decrease in the function of the lymphatic system, a reduction in immunoglobulin and complement concentrations, the precipitation of lymphocytopenia, and interference with antigen-antibody binding.
Valsartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used to treat a variety of cardiac conditions including hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and heart failure. Valsartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Valsartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Loperamide is an opioid receptor agonist and acts on the mu opioid receptors in the myenteric plexus large intestines; it does not affect the central nervous system like other opioids; Loperamide usually as hydrochloride, is a drug effective against diarrhea resulting from gastroenteritis or inflammatory bowel disease. In most countries it is available generically under brand names such as Lopex, Imodium, Dimor and Pepto Diarrhea Control; Treatment should be avoided in the presence of fever or if the stool is bloody. Treatment is not recommended for patients who could suffer detrimental effects from rebound constipation. If there is a suspicion of diarrhea associated with organisms that can penetrate the intestinal walls, such as E. coli O157:H7 or salmonella, loperamide is contraindicated; Loperamide, usually as hydrochloride, is a drug effective against diarrhea resulting from gastroenteritis or inflammatory bowel disease. In most countries it is available generically under brand names such as Lopex, Imodium, Dimor and Pepto Diarrhea Control; it does not affect the central nervous system like other opioids; One of the long-acting synthetic antidiarrheals; it is not significantly absorbed from the gut, and has no effect on the adrenergic system or central nervous system, but may antagonize histamine and interfere with acetylcholine release locally; Loperamide is an opioid receptor agonist and acts on the mu opioid receptors in the myenteric plexus large intestines.
Vardenafil (Levitra) is an oral therapy for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. It is a selective inhibitor of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5). Penile erection is a hemodynamic process initiated by the relaxation of smooth muscle in the corpus cavernosum and its associated arterioles. During sexual stimulation, nitric oxide is released from nerve endings and endothelial cells in the corpus cavernosum. Nitric oxide activates the enzyme guanylate cyclase resulting in increased synthesis of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) in the smooth muscle cells of the corpus cavernosum. The cGMP in turn triggers smooth muscle relaxation, allowing increased blood flow into the penis, resulting in erection. The tissue concentration of cGMP is regulated by both the rates of synthesis and degradation via phosphodiesterases (PDEs). The most abundant PDE in the human corpus cavernosum is the cGMPspecific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5); therefore, the inhibition of PDE5 enhances erectile function by increasing the amount of cGMP.
Triethyl citrate is used in foods as a flavouring agent, solvent and surface-active agent Triethyl citrate is an ester of citric acid. It is a colorless, odorless liquid used as a food additive (E number E1505) to stabilize foams, especially as whipping aid for egg white. In pharmaceutical coatings and plastics
Aniline is an organic chemical compound, specifically a primary aromatic amine. It consists of a benzene ring attached to an amino group. Aniline is oily and, although colorless, it can be slowly oxidized and resinified in air to form impurities which can give it a red-brown tint. Its boiling point is 184 degree centigrade and its melting point is -6 degree centegrade. It is a liquid at room temperature. Like most volatile amines, it possesses a somewhat unpleasant odour of rotten fish, and also has a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly acrid poison. It ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. Aniline reacts with strong acids to form salts containing the anilinium (or phenylammonium) ion (C6H5-NH3+), and reacts with acyl halides (such as acetyl chloride (ethanoyl chloride), CH3COCl) to form amides. The amides formed from aniline are sometimes called anilides, for example CH3-CO-NH-C6H5 is acetanilide, for which the modern name is N-phenyl ethanamide. Like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly reactive in electrophilic substitution reactions. For example, sulfonation of aniline produces sulfanilic acid, which can be converted to sulfanilamide. Sulfanilamide is one of the sulfa drugs which were widely used as antibacterial in the early 20th century. Aniline was first isolated from the destructive distillation of indigo in 1826 by Otto Unverdorben. In 1834, Friedrich Runge isolated from coal tar a substance which produced a beautiful blue color on treatment with chloride of lime; this he named kyanol or cyanol. In 1841, C. J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with caustic potash it yielded an oil, which he named aniline, from the specific name of one of the indigo-yielding plants, Indigofera anil, anil being derived from the Sanskrit, dark-blue.
Exemestane is an oral steroidal aromatase inhibitor used in the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive (also called hormone-receptor-positive, estrogen-responsive) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It acts as a false substrate for the aromatase enzyme, and is processed to an intermediate that binds irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme causing its inactivation.
Cyclohexylamine is a food contaminant arising from its use as a boiler water additive Cyclohexylamine, also called hexahydroaniline, 1-aminocyclohexane, or aminohexahydrobenzene, is an organic chemical, an amine derived from cyclohexane. It is a clear to yellowish liquid with fishy odor, with melting point of 17.7 ¬∞C and boiling point 134.5 ¬∞C, miscible with water. Like other amines, it is of mildly alkaline nature, compared to strong bases such as NaOH, but it is a stronger base than its aromatic sister compound aniline, which differs only in that its ring is aromatic. It is flammable, with flash point at 28.6 ¬∞C. Explosive mixtures with air can be formed above 26 ¬∞C. It is toxic by both ingestion and inhalation; the inhalation itself may be fatal. It readily absorbs through skin, which it irritates. It is corrosive. Cyclohexylamine is listed as an extremely hazardous substance as defined by Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
Efavirenz (brand names Sustiva and Stocrin) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and is used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1.
1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene is a member of the class of compounds known as M-xylenes. M-xylenes are aromatic compounds that contain a m-xylene moiety, which is a monocyclic benzene carrying exactly two methyl groups at the 1- and 3-positions. 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene can be found in corn, which makes 1,3-dimethyl-4-ethylbenzene a potential biomarker for the consumption of this food product.
Losartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. Losartan and its longer acting metabolite, E-3174, lower blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); they compete with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Losartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
1-Butylamine, also known as 1-aminobutan or N-C4H9NH2, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as monoalkylamines. These are organic compounds containing an primary aliphatic amine group. Butylamine is a colourless liquid which acquires a yellow colour upon storage in air. 1-Butylamine is an ammonia and fishy tasting compound. 1-Butylamine has been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as cocoa and cocoa products, brassicas, fishes, garden tomato, and milk and milk products. This could make 1-butylamine a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. It is one of the four isomeric amines of butane. It is known to have the fishy, ammonia-like odor common to amines. Found in mulberry leaves, kale, swede, tomato, wheat bread, cheeses, caviar, raw fatty fish, cooked chicken or beef, beer, cocoa, and other foodstuffs.
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
4-Dodecylbenzenesulfonic Acid is a sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate, a series of organic compounds with the formula C12H25C6H4SO3Na. It is a colourless salt with useful properties as a surfactant. It is usually produced as a mixture of related sulfonates. It is a major component of laundry detergent. (Wikipedia)
Candesartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. It is administered orally as the prodrug, candesartan cilexetil, which is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, candesartan, during absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Candesartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Candesartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Ziprasidone (marketed as Geodon, Zeldox) was the fifth atypical antipsychotic to gain FDA approval (February 2001). Ziprasidone is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved for the treatment of schizophrenia, and the intramuscular injection form of ziprasidone is approved for acute agitation in schizophrenic patients. Ziprasidone has also received approval for acute treatment of mania associated with bipolar disorder. [Wikipedia]
Propylparaben, also known as propyl chemosept or propyl parasept, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Propylparaben is a sweet, burnt, and hawthorn tasting compound. Propylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent.
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattl
Triclosan is an antibacterial and antifungal agent. It is a polychloro phenoxy phenol. It is widely used as a preservative and antimicrobial agent in personal care products such as soaps, skin creams, toothpaste and deodorants as well as in household items such as plastic chopping boards, sports equipment and shoes. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) at the present time there is no evidence that triclosan in personal care products provides an extra benefit to health beyond its anti-gingivitis effect in toothpaste. The FDA does not recommend changing consumer use of triclosan containing products one way or the other due to currently insufficient safety evidence. Studies by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found triclosan to be an effective antibacterial. Triclosan safety is currently under review by the FDA and Health Canada. Triclosan is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. 
Amitriptyline hydrochloride is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amitriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amitriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amitriptyline may be used to treat depression, chronic pain (unlabeled use), irritable bowel syndrome (unlabeled use), diabetic neuropathy (unlabeled use), post-traumatic stress disorder (unlabeled use), and for migraine prophylaxis (unlabeled use).
Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety; Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is sold under the brand-names Celexa (U.S., Forest Laboratories, Inc.), Cipramil, Seropram (Europe and Australia) and Ciazil (Australia); A furancarbonitrile that is one of the serotonin uptake inhibitors used as an antidepressant. The drug is also effective in reducing ethanol uptake in alcoholics and is used in depressed patients who also suffer from tardive dyskinesia in preference to tricyclic antidepressants, which aggravate this condition; Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety. Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Nitrendipine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a calcium channel blocker with marked vasodilator action. It is an effective antihypertensive agent and differs from other calcium channel blockers in that it does not reduce glomerular filtration rate and is mildly natriuretic, rather than sodium retentive. [PubChem]By deforming the channel, inhibiting ion-control gating mechanisms, and/or interfering with the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Nitrendipine inhibits the influx of extracellular calcium across the myocardial and vascular smooth muscle cell membranes The decrease in intracellular calcium inhibits the contractile processes of the myocardial smooth muscle cells, causing dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries, increased oxygen delivery to the myocardial tissue, decreased total peripheral resistance, decreased systemic blood pressure, and decreased afterload.
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
Pantozol; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy; Protium; Protonix; Pantozol; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance; Protium; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Protonix; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy.
Bisoprolol is a cardioselective &beta;1-adrenergic blocking agent used for secondary prevention of myocardial infarction (MI), heart failure, angina pectoris and mild to moderate hypertension. Bisoprolol is structurally similar to metoprolol, acebutolol and atenolol in that it has two substituents in the <i>para</i> position of the benzene ring. The &beta;1-selectivity of these agents is thought to be due in part to the large substituents in the <i>para</i> position. At lower doses (less than 20 mg daily), bisoprolol selectively blocks cardiac &beta;1-adrenergic receptors with little activity against &beta;2-adrenergic receptors of the lungs and vascular smooth muscle. Receptor selectivity decreases with daily doses of 20 mg or greater. Unlike propranolol and pindolol, bisoprolol does not exhibit membrane-stabilizing or sympathomimetic activity. Bisoprolol possesses a single chiral centre and is administered as a racemic mixture. Only <i>l</i>-bisoprolol exhibits significant &beta;-blocking activity.
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
1,1-Dimethylbiguanide, commonly known as metformin, is a member of the class of guanidines that is biguanide the carrying two methyl substituents at position 1. It has a role as a hypoglycemic agent, a xenobiotic and an environmental contaminant. It derives from a biguanide. It is a conjugate base of a metformin(1+). Metformin is a biguanide hypoglycemic agent used in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus not responding to dietary modification. Metformin improves glycemic control by improving insulin sensitivity and decreasing intestinal absorption of glucose. Metformin is the most popular anti-diabetic drug in the United States and one of the most prescribed drugs in the country overall, with nearly 35 million prescriptions filled in 2006 for generic metformin alone. It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome. It is not associated with weight gain and is taken by mouth. It is sometimes used as an off-label augment to attenuate the risk of weight gain in people who take antipsychotics as well as phenelzine.
iso-nLc8Cer, also known as Cumidine or 4-(1-Methylethyl)a0ine, is classified as a member of the Cumenes. Cumenes are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety. iso-nLc8Cer is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and basic
Miconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an imidazole antifungal agent that is used topically and by intravenous infusion. [PubChem]Miconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Miconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Dibutyl phthalate is found in cloves. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Benzothiazole, also known as BT or benzosulfonazole, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzothiazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom). This ring is a potential component in nonlinear optics (NLO). The nine atoms of the bicycle and the attached substituents are coplanar. Although the parent compound, benzothiazole is not widely used, many of its derivatives are found in commercial products or in nature. Benzothiazole is a coffee, cooked, and gasoline tasting compound. benzothiazole is found, on average, in the highest concentration in safflowers. benzothiazole has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as common persimmons, fruits, guava, potato, and tea. This could make benzothiazole a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Firefly luciferin can be considered a derivative of benzothiazole. The compound is used also used as an insecticide and food flavoring agent. Some drugs contain this group, examples being riluzole and pramipexole. It is colorless, slightly viscous liquid. It is a thermally stable electron-withdrawing moiety with numerous applications in dyes such as thioflavin. Benzothiazole is an aromatic heterocyclic compound with the chemical formula C7H5NS.
Pyrrole is found in corn. Pyrrole is a flavouring ingredient Pyrrole has very low basicity compared to conventional amines and some other aromatic compounds like pyridine. This decreased basicity is attributed to the delocalization of the lone pair of electrons of the nitrogen atom in the aromatic ring. Pyrrole is a very weak base with a pKaH of about 4. Protonation results in loss of aromaticity, and is, therefore, unfavorable. Pyrrole is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound, a five-membered ring with the formula C4H4NH. Substituted derivatives are also called pyrroles. For example, C4H4NCH3 is N-methylpyrrole. Porphobilinogen is a trisubstituted pyrrole, which is the biosynthetic precursor to many natural products. The starting materials in the Piloty-Robinson pyrrole synthesis are 2 equivalents of an aldehyde and hydrazine. The product is a pyrrole with specific substituents in the 3 and 4 positions. The aldehyde reacts with the diamine to an intermediate di-imine (R C=N N=C R), which, with added hydrochloric acid, gives ring-closure and loss of ammonia to the pyrrole
An antiepileptic agent related to the barbiturates; it is partly metabolized to phenobarbital in the body and owes some of its actions to this metabolite. Adverse effects are reported to be more frequent than with phenobarbital. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p309)
Sulfamethazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfanilamide anti-infective agent. It has a spectrum of antimicrobial action similar to other sulfonamides. [PubChem]Sulfonamides inhibit the enzymatic conversion of pteridine and p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to dihydropteroic acid by competing with PABA for binding to dihydrofolate synthetase, an intermediate of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis. THF is required for the synthesis of purines and dTMP and inhibition of its synthesis inhibits bacterial growth. Pyrimethamine and trimethoprim inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, another step in THF synthesis, and therefore act synergistically with the sulfonamides.
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered. (PMID:18045128, 17579894). Daidzein is a biomarker for the consumption of soy beans and other soy products.
Thiabendazole is active against a variety of nematodes and is the drug of choice for strongyloidiasis. It has CNS side effects and hepatototoxic potential. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p919)The precise mode of action of thiabendazole on the parasite is unknown, but it most likely inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme fumarate reductase. Thiabendazole is also used as a postharvest treatment for bananas, plantains and oranges. Registered in Canada for control of silver scurf in stored potatoes Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. Thiabendazole is also a chelating agent, which means that it is used medicinally to bind metals in cases of metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, mercury poisoning or antimony poisoning. Thiabendazole is vermicidal and/or vermifugal against <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> ("common roundworm"), <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> (threadworm), <i>Necator americanus</i>, <i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i> (hookworm), <i>Trichuris trichiura</i> (whipworm), <i>Ancylostoma braziliense</i> (dog and cat hookworm), <i>Toxocara canis</i>, <i>Toxocara cati</i> (ascarids), and <i>Enterobius vermicularis</i> (pinworm). Thiabendazole also suppresses egg and/or larval production and may inhibit the subsequent development of those eggs or larvae which are passed in the feces
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Ebastine (trade names Evastin, Kestine, Ebastel, Aleva) is a non-sedating H1 antihistamine. It does not penetrate the blood–brain barrier and thus allows an effective block of the H1 receptor in peripheral tissue without a central side effect, i. e not causing sedation or drowsiness. The basic patent for ebastine in Europe is EP-B-134124. It is often provided in micronised form, due to poor water solubility. (Wikipedia) CYP2J2, an arachidonic acid epoxygenase, is recognized for its role in the first-pass metabolism of astemizole and ebastine. (PMID: 22328583)
Efavirenz (brand names Sustiva and Stocrin) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and is used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1.
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Medroxyprogesterone, or MP is a progestin (synthetic progestogen). MP is not used medically, as it is over two orders of magnitude less potent than medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA); a derivative of MP (PMID: 16784762). MP may be formed via the metabolism of MPA. Medroxyprogesterone acetate is used to treat conditions such as absent or irregular menstrual periods, or abnormal uterine bleeding. Synthetic progestogens are widely used to simulate the effects of progesterone; a natural female sex hormone. Progesterone is essential for endometrial receptivity, embryo implantation, and the successful establishment of pregnancy. A low progesterone concentration or an insufficient response to progesterone can cause infertility and pregnancy loss (PMID: 20104424). In addition to progestagenic activity, MP is also a weak antiandrogen in vitro (PMID: 29990947). Medroxyprogesterone is only found in individuals that have used or taken MPA.
2,4-Dibromophenol is found in crustaceans. Commonly found in molluscs and crustacean
Terbinafine hydrochloride (Lamisil) is a synthetic allylamine antifungal. It is highly lipophilic in nature and tends to accumulate in skin, nails, and fatty tissues. Like other allylamines, terbinafine inhibits ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting the fungal squalene monooxygenase (squalene 2,3-epoxidase), an enzyme that is part of the fungal cell wall synthesis pathway.
2,4-D is a member of the phenoxy family of herbicides, which include:; 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin, which is a class of plant hormones. It is absorbed through the leaves and is translocated to the meristems of the plant. Uncontrolled, unsustainable growth ensues, causing stem curl-over, leaf withering, and eventual plant death. 2,4-D is typically applied as an amine salt, but more potent ester versions exist as well. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (usually referred to by its abbreviation, 2,4-D) is a common systemic pesticide/herbicide used in the control of broadleaf weeds. It is one of the most widely used herbicide in the world, and the third most commonly used in North America. 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin (plant hormone), and as such it is often used in laboratories for plant research and as a supplement in plant cell culture media such as MS medium. It was a major ingredient in Agent Orange alongside its chemically similar relative, 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid).
Enilconazole is an Agricultural fungicide Enilconazole is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. It is also called Imazalil, Chloramizole, Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone
Desloratadine is a second generation, tricyclic antihistamine that which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It is the active descarboethoxy metabolite of loratidine (a second generation histamine). Desloratidine has a long-lasting effect and does not cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Exemestane is an oral steroidal aromatase inhibitor used in the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive (also called hormone-receptor-positive, estrogen-responsive) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It acts as a false substrate for the aromatase enzyme, and is processed to an intermediate that binds irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme causing its inactivation.
Warfarin is an anticoagulant that acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors. Warfarin is indicated for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism, and atrial fibrillation with embolization. It is also used as an adjunct in the prophylaxis of systemic embolism after myocardial infarction. Warfarin is also used as a rodenticide.
Morpholine is a permitted (FDA) in edible coatings for fruit and vegetables. Morpholine is a food contaminant arising from its use as a boiler water additive Morpholine is a common additive, in ppm concentrations, for pH adjustment in both fossil fuel and nuclear power plant steam systems. Morpholine is used because its volatility is about the same as water, so once it is added to the water, its concentration becomes distributed rather evenly in both the water and steam phases. Its pH adjusting qualities then become distributed throughout the steam plant to provide corrosion protection. Morpholine is often used in conjunction with low concentrations of hydrazine or ammonia to provide a comprehensive all-volatile treatment chemistry for corrosion protection for the steam systems of such plants. Morpholine decomposes reasonably slowly in the absence of oxygen even at the high temperatures and pressures in these steam systems. Morpholine is an organic chemical compound having the chemical formula O(CH2CH2)2NH. This heterocycle, pictured at right, features both amine and ether functional groups. Because of the amine, morpholine is a base; its conjugate acid is called morpholinium. For example, when morpholine is neutralized by hydrochloric acid, one obtains the salt morpholinium chloride. Morpholine is widely used in organic synthesis. For example, it is a building block in the preparation of the antibiotic linezolid and the anticancer agent gefitinib (Iressa)
Secobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbiturate derivative drug. It possesses anaesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative and hypnotic properties. In the United Kingdom, it was known as Quinalbarbitone. Secobarbital binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged.
Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB) used in the management of hypertension. Generally, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) such as telmisartan bind to the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors with high affinity, causing inhibition of the action of angiotensin II on vascular smooth muscle, ultimately leading to a reduction in arterial blood pressure. Recent studies suggest that telmisartan may also have PPAR-gamma agonistic properties that could potentially confer beneficial metabolic effects.
4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol, also known as 2-Hydroxyatrazine, is classified as a member of the 1,3,5-triazines. 1,3,5-triazines are compounds containing a triazine ring, which is a heterocyclic ring, similar to the six-member benzene ring but with three carbons replaced by nitrogen atoms, at ring positions 1, 3, and 5. 4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral
Enalapril is a prodrug that belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class of medications. It is rapidly metabolized in the liver to enalaprilat following oral administration. Enalaprilat is a potent, competitive inhibitor of ACE, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Enalapril may be used to treat essential or renovascular hypertension and symptomatic congestive heart failure.
Mono-benzyl phthalate, also known as benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid, monobenzyl ester or benzyl hydrogen phthalate, is a metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP). It can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis. (ChemoSummarizer)
Domperidone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a specific blocker of dopamine receptors. It speeds gastrointestinal peristalsis, causes prolactin release, and is used as antiemetic and tool in the study of dopaminergic mechanisms. [PubChem]Domperidone acts as a gastrointestinal emptying (delayed) adjunct and peristaltic stimulant. The gastroprokinetic properties of domperidone are related to its peripheral dopamine receptor blocking properties. Domperidone facilitates gastric emptying and decreases small bowel transit time by increasing esophageal and gastric peristalsis and by lowering esophageal sphincter pressure. Antiemetic: The antiemetic properties of domperidone are related to its dopamine receptor blocking activity at both the chemoreceptor trigger zone and at the gastric level. It has strong affinities for the D2 and D3 dopamine receptors, which are found in the chemoreceptor trigger zone, located just outside the blood brain barrier, which - among others - regulates nausea and vomiting
Nonsystemic insecticide for rice and fruit trees. Cholinesterase inhibitor. Diazinon is used against animal ectoparasite
Celecoxib (INN) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs; Celecoxib is a highly selective COX-2 inhibitor and primarily inhibits this isoform of cyclooxygenase, whereas traditional NSAIDs inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2. Celecoxib is approximately 10-20 times more selective for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1. In theory, this specificity allows celecoxib and other COX-2 inhibitors to reduce inflammation (and pain) while minimizing gastrointestinal adverse drug reactions (e.g. stomach ulcers) that are common with non-selective NSAIDs. It also means that it has a reduced effect on platelet aggregation compared to traditional NSAIDs.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. It is a metabolite of diazepam, prazepam, temazepam, and clorazepate, and has moderate amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties compared to other benzodiazepines (Wikipedia). Like other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant, and anterograde amnesia effects.
Oxcarbazepine is structurally a derivative of carbamazepine, adding an extra oxygen atom to the benzylcarboxamide group. This difference helps reduce the impact on the liver of metabolizing the drug, and also prevents the serious forms of anemia occasionally associated with carbamazepine. Aside from this reduction in side effects, it is thought to have the same mechanism as carbamazepine - sodium channel inhibition - and is generally used to treat partial seizures in epileptic children and adults.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Lauroyl diethanolamide is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]")
Glimepiride is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the first III generation sulphonyl urea it is a very potent sulphonyl urea with long duration of action.The mechanism of action of glimepiride in lowering blood glucose appears to be dependent on stimulating the release of insulin from functioning pancreatic beta cells, and increasing sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin. Glimepiride likely binds to ATP-sensitive potassium channel receptors on the pancreatic cell surface, reducing potassium conductance and causing depolarization of the membrane. Membrane depolarization stimulates calcium ion influx through voltage-sensitive calcium channels. This increase in intracellular calcium ion concentration induces the secretion of insulin.
Sulfadimethoxine (trade name Di-Methox, Albon) is a sulfonamide antibiotic. Sulfadimethoxine is used to treat many infections including treatment of respiratory, urinary tract, enteric, and soft tissue infections. It is most frequently used in veterinary medicine, although it is approved in some countries for use in humans. Sulfadimethoxine inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid) from para-aminobenzoic acid.
Anastrozole is a drug indicated in the treatment of breast cancer in post-menopausal women. It is used both in adjuvant therapy (i.e. following surgery) and in metastatic breast cancer. It decreases the amount of estrogens that the body makes. Anastrozole belongs in the class of drugs known as aromatase inhibitors. It inhibits the enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for converting androgens (produced by women in the adrenal glands) to estrogens.
Pentoxifylline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a methylxanthine derivative that inhibits phosphodiesterase and affects blood rheology. It improves blood flow by increasing erythrocyte and leukocyte flexibility. It also inhibits platelet aggregation. Pentoxifylline modulates immunologic activity by stimulating cytokine production. [PubChem]Pentoxifylline inhibits erythrocyte phosphodiesterase, resulting in an increase in erythrocyte cAMP activity. Subsequently, the erythrocyte membrane becomes more resistant to deformity. Along with erythrocyte activity, pentoxifylline also decreases blood viscosity by reducing plasma fibrinogen concentrations and increasing fibrinolytic activity. It is also a non selective adenosine receptor antagonist.
Lorazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. [PubChem]Lorazepam binds to an allosteric site on GABA-A receptors, which are pentameric ionotropic receptors in the CNS. Binding potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which upon binding opens the chloride channel in the receptor, allowing chloride influx and causing hyperpolerization of the neuron.
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
Pyridine is a clear liquid with an odor that is sour, putrid, and fish-like. It is a relatively simple heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that is structurally related to benzene, with one CH group in the six-membered ring replaced by a nitrogen atom. Pyridine is obtained from crude coal tar or is synthesized from acetaldehyde, formaldehyde and ammonia. Pyridine is often used as a denaturant for antifreeze mixtures, for ethyl alcohol, for fungicides, and as a dyeing aid for textiles. It is a harmful substance if inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin. In particular, it is known to reduce male fertility and is considered carcinogenic. Common symptoms of acute exposure to pyridine include: headache, coughing, asthmatic breathing, laryngitis, nausea and vomiting. -- Wikipedia.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
2,4-Dichlorophenol is a chlorinated organic chemical due to environmental exposure, that can be detected in breast milk. The free species of phenols and chlorinated organic appear to be most prevalent in milk. (PMID 16377264 ).
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Butylparaben, also known as butyl par asept or tegosept b, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as p-hydroxybenzoic acid alkyl esters. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzoic acid, which is esterified with an alkyl group and para-substituted with a hydroxyl group. Butylparaben displayed the most competitive binding to rat estrogen receptors when tested along with methyl, ethyl, and propylparabens. Butylparaben is a very faint and phenolic tasting compound. Butylparaben is a potentially toxic compound. However, parabens have not been proven to cause breast cancer. It has been used in cosmetic products since the 1940s and in pharmaceutical products since 1924.
1-Methyl-6-phenyl-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-amine is a food-related mutagen, reported to be the most abundant heterocyclic amine found in cooked meat and fish.
Capecitabine is an orally-administered chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of metastatic breast and colorectal cancers. Capecitabine is a prodrug, that is enzymatically converted to fluorouracil (antimetabolite) in the tumor, where it inhibits DNA synthesis and slows growth of tumor tissue.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic medication approved in 1993. It is most often used to treat delusional psychosis (including schizophrenia), but risperidone (like other atypical antipsychotics) is also used to treat some forms of bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and Tourette syndrome. Generally lower doses are used for autistic spectrum disorders than are used for schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis; Risperidone is a very strong dopamine blocker (antagonist); Risperidone is a very strong dopamine blocker (antagonist); i.e., it inhibits functioning of postsynaptic dopamine receptors. An anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the benzodiazepines, but it has an efficacy comparable to diazepam; i.e., it inhibits functioning of postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Risperidone (Belivon, Rispen, Risperdal; in the United States) is an atypical antipsychotic medication. It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1993. It is most often used to treat delusional psychosis (including schizophrenia), but risperidone (like other atypical antipsychotics) is also used to treat some forms of bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and Tourette syndrome; risperidone has received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for symptomatic treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents. Risperidone is now the most commonly prescribed antipsychotic medication in the United States.
Estrone-glucuronide is the dominant metabolite of estradiol. Estrone glucuronide is formed by a UDP glucuronyltransferase (EC 2.4.1.17, UTP) reaction creating a much more water-soluble form of the hormone; glucuronides are the most abundant estrogen conjugates. Measurement of estrone-glucuronide is used as one reference method for determining ovulation (immunotubes are available for measuring urinary estrone glucuronide in conjunction with LH, one of the most advanced of ovulation prediction products). (PMID: 14742773, 1755456).
Cyclamic acid is an artificial sweetening agent, usually employed as Na or Ca salt (cyclamate). Use suspended in some countries, including USA, because of possible weak carcinogenic activity (disputed). Cyclamic acid is a permitted in EU at levels of 250-1600 ppm in food products.Cyclamic acid is a compound with formula C6H11NHSO2OH
Xanthopurpurin is found in beverages. Xanthopurpurin is obtained from Asperula odorata (sweet wooddruff
4-Bromophenol, also known as P-Bromohydroxybenzene, is classified as a member of the P-bromophenols. P-bromophenols are bromophenols carrying a iodine at the C4 position of the benzene ring. 4-Bromophenol is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and acidic
N-acetyl-5-aminosalicylic acid is a metabolite of mesalazine. Mesalazine, also known as mesalamine or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), is an anti-inflammatory drug used to treat inflammatory bowel disease, such as ulcerative colitis and mild-to-moderate Crohn's disease. Mesalazine is a bowel-specific aminosalicylate drug that acts locally in the gut and has its predominant actions there, thereby having few systemic side effects. (Wikipedia)
Flutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antiandrogen with about the same potency as cyproterone in rodent and canine species.Flutamide is a nonsteroidal antiandrogen that blocks the action of both endogenous and exogenous testosterone by binding to the androgen receptor. In addition Flutamide is a potent inhibitor of testosterone-stimulated prostatic DNA synthesis. Moreover, it is capable of inhibiting prostatic nuclear uptake of androgen.
Pravastatin is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease. Pravastatin was identified originally in a mold called Nocardia autotrophica by researchers of the Sankyo Pharma Inc; An antilipemic fungal metabolite isolated from cultures of Nocardia autotrophica. It acts as a competitive inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductases); In medicine and pharmacology, pravastatin (Pravachol or Selektine) is a member of the drug class of statins, used for lowering cholesterol and preventing cardiovascular disease.
Glyburide is an oral antihyperglycemic agent used for the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It belongs to the sulfonylurea class of insulin secretagogues, which act by stimulating &beta; cells of the pancreas to release insulin. Sulfonylureas increase both basal insulin secretion and meal-stimulated insulin release. Medications in this class differ in their dose, rate of absorption, duration of action, route of elimination and binding site on their target pancreatic &beta; cell receptor. Sulfonylureas also increase peripheral glucose utilization, decrease hepatic gluconeogenesis and may increase the number and sensitivity of insulin receptors. Sulfonylureas are associated with weight gain, though less so than insulin. Due to their mechanism of action, sulfonylureas may cause hypoglycemia and require consistent food intake to decrease this risk. The risk of hypoglycemia is increased in elderly, debilitated and malnourished individuals. Glyburide has been shown to decrease fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels (reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control). Glyburide appears to be completely metabolized, likely in the liver. Although its metabolites exert a small hypoglycemic effect, their contribution to glyburide's hypoglycemic effect is thought to be clinically unimportant. Glyburide metabolites are excreted in urine and feces in approximately equal proportions. The half-life of glyburide appears to be unaffected in those with a creatinine clearance of greater than 29 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>.
Enalapril is a prodrug that belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class of medications. It is rapidly metabolized in the liver to enalaprilat following oral administration. Enalaprilat is a potent, competitive inhibitor of ACE, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Enalapril may be used to treat essential or renovascular hypertension and symptomatic congestive heart failure.
Diethyl phthalic acid, also known as diethyl phthalate, 1,2-diethyl phthalic acid or 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diethyl ester, is classified as a member of the benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid esters are ester derivatives of benzoic acid. Diethyl phthalic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic. This substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalic acid can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalic acid is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883) It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. (ChemoSummarizer)
Omeprazole is a highly effective inhibitor of gastric acid secretion used in the therapy of stomach ulcers, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer disease , gastroesophageal reflux disease and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. The drug inhibits the H(+)-K(+)-ATPase (H(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase) in the proton pump of Gastric Parietal Cells.--Pubchem. Omeprazole is one of the most widely prescribed drugs internationally and is available over the counter in some countries.
Systemic agricultural fungicid
Fenpropimorph (CAS: 67564-91-4) belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanes. These are organic compounds containing a phenylpropane moiety. Fenpropimorph is possibly neutral. Fenpropimorph is an agricultural fungicide used against powdery mildews on sugar beets, beans, and leek.
Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
Systemic agricultural and horticultural fungicid
Pantozol; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy; Protium; Protonix; Pantozol; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance; Protium; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Protonix; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy.
Nitrendipine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a calcium channel blocker with marked vasodilator action. It is an effective antihypertensive agent and differs from other calcium channel blockers in that it does not reduce glomerular filtration rate and is mildly natriuretic, rather than sodium retentive. [PubChem]By deforming the channel, inhibiting ion-control gating mechanisms, and/or interfering with the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Nitrendipine inhibits the influx of extracellular calcium across the myocardial and vascular smooth muscle cell membranes The decrease in intracellular calcium inhibits the contractile processes of the myocardial smooth muscle cells, causing dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries, increased oxygen delivery to the myocardial tissue, decreased total peripheral resistance, decreased systemic blood pressure, and decreased afterload.
Drospirenone is a synthetic progestin that is an analog to spironolactone. It is found in a number of birth control formulations. Drospirenone differs from other synthetic progestins in that its pharmacological profile in preclinical studies shows it to be closer to the natural progesterone. As such it has anti-mineralocorticoid properties, counteracts the estrogen-stimulated activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, and is not androgenic.
Ketoprofen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a propionic acid derivative and is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with analgesic and antipyretic properties. The anti-inflammatory effects of ketoprofen are believed to be due to inhibition cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme involved in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. This results in decreased levels of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever and inflammation. Ketoprofen is a non-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor and inhibition of COX-1 is thought to confer some of its side effects, such as GI upset and ulceration. Ketoprofen is thought to have anti-bradykinin activity, as well as lysosomal membrane-stabilizing action. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Clotrimazole is an imidazole derivative with a broad spectrum of antimycotic activity. It inhibits biosynthesis of the sterol ergostol, an important component of fungal cell membranes. Its action leads to increased membrane permeability and apparent disruption of enzyme systems bound to the membrane. -- Pubchem; There is the potential for drug interactions with Clotrimazole if taken orally, as it is a potent, specific inhibitor of cytochrome P450 oxidase enzymes and so may alter the metabolism of other drugs. Clotrimazole is an antifungal medication commonly used in the treatment of fungal infections of both humans and animals such as vaginal yeast infections and ringworm. -- Wikipedia; An imidazole derivative with a broad spectrum of antimycotic activity. It inhibits biosynthesis of the sterol ergostol, an important component of fungal cell membranes. Its action leads to increased membrane permeability and apparent disruption of enzyme systems bound to the membrane. Clotrimazole is a potent, specific inhibitor of cytochrome P450 oxidase enzymes. Hence, it may alter the metabolism of other drugs particularly if taken orally. -- Wikipedia; Clotrimazole is an antifungal medication commonly used in the treatment of fungal infections of both humans and animals such as vaginal yeast infections and ringworm. It also used to treat athlete's foot and jock itch.
Dydrogesterone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic progestational hormone with no androgenic or estrogenic properties. Unlike many other progestational compounds, dydrogesterone produces no increase in temperature and does not inhibit ovulation. [PubChem]Dydrogesterone works by regulating the healthy growth and normal shedding of the womb lining by acting on progesterone receptors in the uterus.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. It is used in the treatment of severe anxiety disorders, as a hypnotic in the short-term management of insomnia, as a sedative and premedicant, as an anticonvulsant, and in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p589).
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Sulfadimethoxine (trade name Di-Methox, Albon) is a sulfonamide antibiotic. Sulfadimethoxine is used to treat many infections including treatment of respiratory, urinary tract, enteric, and soft tissue infections. It is most frequently used in veterinary medicine, although it is approved in some countries for use in humans. Sulfadimethoxine inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid) from para-aminobenzoic acid.
Lorazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. [PubChem]Lorazepam binds to an allosteric site on GABA-A receptors, which are pentameric ionotropic receptors in the CNS. Binding potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which upon binding opens the chloride channel in the receptor, allowing chloride influx and causing hyperpolerization of the neuron.
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
7-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 7-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  5S-hydroxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
5-oxo-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5-oxo-ETE), 5-lipoxygenase product is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils. Its actions are mediated by the oxoeicosanoid (OXE) receptor, a member of the G protein-coupled receptor family.(PMID:18292294).
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
13-HPODE(1-) is also known as 13-Hydroperoxy-(9Z,11E)-octadecadienoate.  13-HPODE(1-) is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
Prostaglandin F2a (PGF2) is one of the earliest discovered and most common prostaglandins. It is actively biosynthesized in various organs of mammals and exhibits a variety of biological activities, including contraction of pulmonary arteries. It is used in medicine to induce labor and as an abortifacient. PGF2a binds to the Prostaglandin F2 receptor (PTGFR) which is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor family. PGF2-alpha mediates luteolysis. Luteolysis is the structural and functional degradation of the corpus luteum (CL) that occurs at the end of the luteal phase of both the estrous and menstrual cycles in the absence of pregnancy. PGF2 may also be involved in modulating intraocular pressure and smooth muscle contraction in the uterus and gastrointestinal tract sphincters. PGF2 is mainly synthesized directly from PGH2 by PGH2 9,11-endoperoxide reductase. A small amount of PGF2 is also produced from PGE2 by PGE2 9-ketoreductase. A PGF2 epimer has been reported to exhibit various biological activities, and its levels are increased in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, plasma, and urine in patients with mastocytosis and bronchial asthma. PGF2 is synthesized from PGD2 by PGD2 11-ketoreductase. (PMID: 16475787). Prostaglandins are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-HETE is a hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid. Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids (HETEs) are formed by the 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenase (LO) pathways. The 5- and 12-LO products are mainly proinflammatory in the skin whereas the main 15-LO product 15-HETE has antiinflammatory capacities. In vitro, 15-HETE has been shown to inhibit LTB4 formation, 12-HETE formation, and specifically inhibits the neutrophil chemotactic effect of LTB4. The inhibition of LTB4 formation is probably due to modulation of the 5-LO because no changes in PGE2 formation have been determined. In vivo, 15-HETE inhibits LTB4-induced erythema and edema, and reduces LTB4 in the synovial fluid of carragheenan-induced experimental arthritis in dogs. 15-HETE also has some immunomodulatory effects. It inhibits the mixed lymphocyte reaction, induces generation of murine cytotoxic suppressor T cells, and it decreases interferon production by murine lymphoma cells. Furthermore, IL-4 and IL-13 have recently been shown to be potent activators of the 15-LO in mononuclear cells (PMID: 11104340). 15(S)-HETE is found to be associated with Zellweger syndrome, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
12-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (CAS: 71030-37-0), also known as 12-HETE, is an eicosanoid, a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic acid. 5-Lipoxygenase (LO)-derived leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory glomerular injury. LO product 12-HETE is associated with the pathogenesis of hypertension and may mediate angiotensin II and TGFbeta induced mesangial cell abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. 12-HETE is markedly elevated in the psoriatic lesions. 12-HETE is a vasoconstrictor eicosanoid that contributes to high blood pressure in (renovascular) hypertension and pregnancy-induced hypertension. A significant percentage of patients suffering from a selective increase in plasma LDL cholesterol (type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia) exhibits increased platelet reactivity. This includes enhanced platelet responsiveness against a variety of platelet-stimulating agents ex vivo and enhanced arachidonic acid metabolism associated with increased generation of arachidonic acid metabolites such as 12-HETE, and secretion of platelet-storage products (PMID: 7562532, 12480795, 17361113, 8498970, 1333255, 2119633). 12-HETE is a highly selective ligand used to label mu-opioid receptors in both membranes and tissue sections. The 12-S-HETE analog has been reported to augment tumour cell metastatic potential through activation of protein kinase C. 12-HETE has a diversity of biological actions and is generated by a number of tissues including the renal glomerulus and the vasculature. 12-HETE is one of the six monohydroxy fatty acids produced by the non-enzymatic oxidation of arachidonic acid. 12-HETE is a neuromodulator that is synthesized during ischemia. Its neuronal effects include attenuation of calcium influx and glutamate release as well as inhibition of AMPA receptor (AMPA-R) activation. 12-HETE is found to be associated with peroxisomal biogenesis defect and Zellweger syndrome, which are inborn errors of metabolism.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
Leukotriene B5 (LTB5) is a 5-lipoxygenase metabolite of arachidonic (AA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), involved in numerous inflammatory diseases and possesses a substantially less potent inflammatory effect than LTB4. Binding of LTB5 to human neutrophil LTB4 high affinity binding sites is lower than that of LTB4. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes isolated from volunteers who ingested eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) form LTB5. Enrichment of human neutrophils with EPA, by dietary supplementation for at least 3 weeks, reduces their formation of LTB4 ex vivo. LTB5 is catabolized to 20-OH-LTB5, which in turn is metabolized to 20-COOH-LTB5. Presumably the same enzyme systems are involved in the catabolism of LTB5 that are responsible for catabolism of LTB4. Fish oil supplementation has a protective effect on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in elite athletes, which may be attributed to its antiinflammatory properties due to a significant reduction in LTB4 and a significant increase in LTB5 generation from activated polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs). (PMID: 1964169, 15866528, 2538061, 16424411). Leukotrienes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) was first identified in 1984 by Serhan and colleagues as 5-lipoxygenase interaction product of activated leukocytes. Endogenous transcellular biosynthesis of LXA4 occurs via interaction of leukocytes with epithelium, endothelium or platelets. Lipoxins (LXs) or the lipoxygenase interaction products are generated from arachidonic acid via sequential actions of lipoxygenases and subsequent reactions to give specific trihydroxytetraene-containing eicosanoids. These unique structures are formed during cell-cell interactions and appear to act at both temporal and spatially distinct sites from other eicosanoids produced during the course of inflammatory responses and to stimulate natural resolution. Lipoxin A4 (LXA4) and lipoxin B4 (LXB4) are positional isomers that each possesses potent cellular and in vivo actions. These LX structures are conserved across species. The results of numerous studies reviewed in this work now confirm that they are the first recognized eicosanoid chemical mediators that display both potent anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions in vivo in disease models that include rabbit, rat, and mouse systems. LXs act at specific GPCRs as agonists to regulate cellular responses of interest in inflammation and resolution. Aspirin has a direct impact in the LX circuit by triggering the biosynthesis of endogenous epimers of LX, termed the aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LX, that share the potent anti-inflammatory actions of LX. (PMID: 16005201, 16613568).
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
(10E,12Z)-9-HODE, also known as 9-Hydroxy-10E,12Z-octadecadienoic acid or 9-Hydroxylinoleic acid, is classified as a lineolic acid or a Lineolic acid derivative. Lineolic acids are derivatives of lineolic acid. Lineolic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 18 carbon long fatty acid, with two CC double bonds at the 9- and 12-positions. (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  (10E,12Z)-9-HODE is an octadecanoid lipid molecule
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid, also known as 15S-HEPE, is classified as a member of the Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids. Hydroxyeicosapentaenoic acids are eicosanoic acids with an attached hydroxyl group and five CC double bonds. 15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and acidic.  15S-hydroxy-5Z,8Z,11Z,13E,17Z-eicosapentaenoic acid is an eicosanoid lipid molecule
Thromboxanes. A stable, physiologically active compound formed in vivo from the prostaglandin endoperoxides. It is important in the platelet-release reaction (release of ADP and serotonin). -- Pubchem. Thromboxanes are eicosanoids. The eicosanoids consist of the prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxanes (TXs), leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs). The PGs and TXs are collectively identified as prostanoids. Prostaglandins were originally shown to be synthesized in the prostate gland, thromboxanes from platelets (thrombocytes), and leukotrienes from leukocytes, hence the derivation of their names. All mammalian cells except erythrocytes synthesize eicosanoids. These molecules are extremely potent, able to cause profound physiological effects at very dilute concentrations. All eicosanoids function locally at the site of synthesis, through receptor-mediated G-protein linked signalling pathways.
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
20-HDoHE is an autoxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid DHA. 20-HDoHE is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that is any docosahexaenoic acid bearing a single hydroxy substituent. An oxidation product of docosahexaenoic acid metabolism. (CHEBI:72790)
5-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HETE) is an endogenous eicosanoid. 5-HETE is an intermediate in arachidonic acid metabolism. It is converted from 5(S)-HPETE via the enzyme glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9)and then converted to 5-OxoETE. It is also involved in the pathway of leukotriene synthesis. In addition, it is a modulator of tubuloglomerular feedback.
15-OxoETE or 15-KETE is a keto-containing leukotriene derivative produced by oxidation of the 15-hydroxyl of 15-HETE.
4-HDoHE is an endogenous oxidized unsaturated fatty acids. Human and mouse plasma samples also catalyzed 4-HDoHE lactonization and 5-HETE lactone hydrolysis. (PMID: 12963475) 4-HDoHE is a hydroxydocosahexaenoic acid that consists of 5E,7Z,10Z,13Z,16Z,19Z-docosahexaenoic acid bearing an additional 4-hydroxy substituent. (CHEBI:72624)
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
Clindamycin is a semisynthetic lincosamide antibiotic that has largely replaced lincomycin due to an improved side effect profile. Clindamycin inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits. It may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Prilocaine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic that is similar pharmacologically to lidocaine. Currently, it is used most often for infiltration anesthesia in dentistry. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p165)Prilocaine acts on sodium channels on the neuronal cell membrane, limiting the spread of seizure activity and reducing seizure propagation. The antiarrhythmic actions are mediated through effects on sodium channels in Purkinje fibers.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Tacrolimus (also FK-506 or Fujimycin) is an immunosuppressive drug whose main use is after organ transplant to reduce the activity of the patient's immune system and so the risk of organ rejection. It is also used in a topical preparation in the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis, severe refractory uveitis after bone marrow transplants, and the skin condition vitiligo. It was discovered in 1984 from the fermentation broth of a Japanese soil sample that contained the bacteria Streptomyces tsukubaensis. Tacrolimus is chemically known as a macrolide. It reduces peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity by binding to the immunophilin FKBP-12 (FK506 binding protein) creating a new complex. This FKBP12-FK506 complex interacts with and inhibits calcineurin thus inhibiting both T-lymphocyte signal transduction and IL-2 transcription.
Nystatin is a polyene antifungal drug to which many molds and yeasts are sensitive, including Candida spp. Nystatin has some toxicity associated with it when given intravenously, but it is not absorbed across intact skin or mucous membranes. It is considered a relatively safe drug for treating oral or gastrointestinal fungal infections.
Sulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)Sulfonamides inhibit the enzymatic conversion of pteridine and p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to dihydropteroic acid by competing with PABA for binding to dihydrofolate synthetase, an intermediate of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis. THF is required for the synthesis of purines and dTMP and inhibition of its synthesis inhibits bacterial growth. Pyrimethamine and trimethoprim inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, another step in THF synthesis, and therefore act synergistically with the sulfonamides.
Acamprosate, also known by the brand name Campral&trade;, is a drug used for treating alcohol dependence. Acamprosate is thought to stabilize the chemical balance in the brain that would otherwise be disrupted by alcoholism, possibly by blocking glutaminergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, while gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors are activated. Reports indicate that acamprosate only works with a combination of attending support groups and abstinence from alcohol. Certain serious side effects include allergic reactions, irregular heartbeats, and low or high blood pressure, while less serious side effects include headaches, insomnia, and impotence. Acamprosate should not be taken by people with kidney problems or allergies to the drug.
Levetiracetam is an anticonvulsant medication used to treat epilepsy. Levetiracetam may selectively prevent hypersynchronization of epileptiform burst firing and propagation of seizure activity. Levetiracetam binds to the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A, which is thought to be involved in the regulation of vesicle exocytosis. Although the molecular significance of levetiracetam binding to synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is not understood, levetiracetam and related analogs showed a rank order of affinity for SV2A which correlated with the potency of their antiseizure activity in audiogenic seizure-prone mice.
Oxybenzone is an organic compound used in sunscreens. It is a derivative of benzophenone. It forms colorless crystals that are readily soluble in most organic solvents. It is used as an ingredient in sunscreen and other cosmetics because it absorbs UV-A ultraviolet rays.
Clenbuterol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a substituted phenylaminoethanol that has beta-2 adrenomimetic properties at very low doses. It is used as a bronchodilator in asthma. [PubChem]Clenbuterol is a Beta(2) agonist similar in some structural respects to salbutamol. Agonism of the beta(2) receptor stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity which ultimately leads to downstream effects of smooth muscle relaxation in the bronchioles.
Ketoprofen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a propionic acid derivative and is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with analgesic and antipyretic properties. The anti-inflammatory effects of ketoprofen are believed to be due to inhibition cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme involved in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. This results in decreased levels of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever and inflammation. Ketoprofen is a non-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor and inhibition of COX-1 is thought to confer some of its side effects, such as GI upset and ulceration. Ketoprofen is thought to have anti-bradykinin activity, as well as lysosomal membrane-stabilizing action. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Sulfathiazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug.It is a short-acting sulfa drug. It used to be a common oral and topical antimicrobial until less toxic alternatives were discovered. It is still occasionally used, sometimes in combination with sulfabenzamide and sulfacetamide.
Norfloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase. [PubChem]The bactericidal action of Norfloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, and recombination. Norfloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterias. The fluorine atom at the 6 position increases potency against gram-negative organisms, and the piperazine moiety at the 7 position is responsible for anti-pseudomonal activity
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
2-Methyl-2-[(1-oxo-2-propenyl)amino]-1-propanesulfonic acid is a fda approved for use in polymer components of food-contact paper and board adhesive
Niflumic Acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [PubChem]Niflumic acid is able to inhibit both phospholipase A2 as well as COX-2, thereby acting as an antiinflamatory and pain reduction agent.
Pantozol; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy; Protium; Protonix; Pantozol; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance; Protium; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Protonix; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy.
Theophylline, also known as quibron TSR or uniphyl, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Theophylline also binds to the adenosine A2B receptor and blocks adenosine mediated bronchoconstriction. Theophylline is a drug which is used for the treatment of the symptoms and reversible airflow obstruction associated with chronic asthma and other chronic lung diseases, such as emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Theophylline and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD. Within humans, theophylline participates in a number of enzymatic reactions. In particular, theophylline and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from caffeine; which is mediated by the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2, cytochrome P450 3A4, cytochrome P450 2C8, cytochrome P450 2C9, and cytochrome P450 2E1. In addition, theophylline can be converted into 1-methylxanthine and formaldehyde; which is mediated by the enzyme cytochrome P450 1A2. In humans, theophylline is involved in caffeine metabolism. Theophylline is a bitter tasting compound. Outside of the human body, Theophylline is found, on average, in the highest concentration within cocoa beans and tea. Theophylline has also been detected, but not quantified in a few different foods, such as arabica coffee, lemons, and pummelo. This could make theophylline a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Theophylline is a potentially toxic compound.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Efavirenz (brand names Sustiva and Stocrin) is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) and is used as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1.
Olanzapine was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression. It has also been established in treating depression off-label because of its mood-stabilizing properties and its ability to increase the efficacy of antidepressants. Olanzapine is manufactured and marketed by the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company. It is available as a pill that comes in the strengths of 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 7.5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg and as as Zydis orally disintegrating tablets in the strengths of 5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg. It is also available as a rapid-acting intramuscular injection for short term acute use. Olanzapine (oh-LAN-za-peen, sold as Zyprexa, Zydis, or in combination with fluoxetine, as Symbyax) was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression.
Clobazam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It has been marketed as an anxiolytic since 1975 and an anticonvulsant since 1984. [Wikipedia]Clobazam binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA-A receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is prolonged as a result.
An antiepileptic agent related to the barbiturates; it is partly metabolized to phenobarbital in the body and owes some of its actions to this metabolite. Adverse effects are reported to be more frequent than with phenobarbital. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p309)
N,O-Didesmethylvenlafaxine is a metabolite of venlafaxine (brand name: Effexor or Efexor). Venlafaxine is a bicyclic antidepressant and is usually categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), but it has been referred to as a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. It works by blocking the transporter reuptake proteins for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse.
Fluoxetine hydrochloride is the first agent of the class of antidepressants known as selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Despite distinct structural differences between compounds in this class, SSRIs possess similar pharmacological activity. As with other antidepressant agents, several weeks of therapy may be required before a clinical effect is seen. SSRIs are potent inhibitors of neuronal serotonin reuptake. They have little to no effect on norepinephrine or dopamine reuptake and do not antagonize α- or β-adrenergic, dopamine D<sub>2</sub> or histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors. During acute use, SSRIs block serotonin reuptake and increase serotonin stimulation of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. Chronic use leads to desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. The overall clinical effect of increased mood and decreased anxiety is thought to be due to adaptive changes in neuronal function that lead to enhanced serotonergic neurotransmission. Side effects include dry mouth, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, sexual dysfunction, and headache. Side effects generally occur within the first two weeks of therapy and are usually less severe and frequent than those observed with tricyclic antidepressants. Fluoxetine may be used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD), moderate to severe bulimia nervosa, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, and, in combination with olanzapine, for treatment-resistant or bipolar I depression. Fluoxetine is the most anorexic and stimulating SSRI.
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Tolnaftate is a synthetic over-the-counter anti-fungal agent. It may come as a cream, powder, spray, or liquid aerosol, and is used to treat jock itch, athlete's foot and ringworm. It is sold under several brand names, most notably Tinactin (Schering-Plough Corporation) and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is an organochlorine compound used as a pesticide and a disinfectant. First produced in the 1930s, it is marketed under many trade names. It can be found in two forms: PCP itself or as the sodium salt of PCP, which dissolves easily in water.
Fenpropimorph (CAS: 67564-91-4) belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanes. These are organic compounds containing a phenylpropane moiety. Fenpropimorph is possibly neutral. Fenpropimorph is an agricultural fungicide used against powdery mildews on sugar beets, beans, and leek.
Ephedrine is only found in individuals who have consumed this drug. Ephedrine is an alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonist that may also enhance release of norepinephrine. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including asthma, heart failure, rhinitis, and urinary incontinence, and for its central nervous system stimulatory effects in the treatment of narcolepsy and depression. It has become less extensively used with the advent of more selective agonists. [PubChem] Ephedrine is similar in molecular structure to the well-known drugs phenylpropanolamine and methamphetamine, as well as to the important neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenalin). Chemically, it is an alkaloid with a phenethylamine skeleton found in various plants in the genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It works mainly by increasing the activity of norepinephrine (noradrenalin) on adrenergic receptors. It is most usually marketed as the hydrochloride or sulfate salt.
Clindamycin is a semisynthetic lincosamide antibiotic that has largely replaced lincomycin due to an improved side effect profile. Clindamycin inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits. It may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Oseltamivir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an acetamido cyclohexene that is a structural homolog of sialic acid and inhibits neuraminidase. [PubChem]Oseltamivir is an ethyl ester prodrug requiring ester hydrolysis for conversion to the active form, oseltamivir carboxylate. The proposed mechanism of action of oseltamivir is inhibition of influenza virus neuraminidase with the possibility of alteration of virus particle aggregation and release.
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
Vigabatrin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analogue of gamma-aminobutyric acid. It is an irreversible inhibitor of 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, the enzyme responsible for the catabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid. (From Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 31st ed)It is believed that vigabatrin increases brain concentrations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, by irreversibly inhibiting enzymes that catabolize GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase GABA-T) or block the reuptake of GABA into glia and nerve endings. Vigabatrin may also work by suppressing repetitive neuronal firing through inhibition of voltage-sensitive sodium channels.
Phenobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant.Phenobarbital acts on GABAA receptors, increasing synaptic inhibition. This has the effect of elevating seizure threshold and reducing the spread of seizure activity from a seizure focus. Phenobarbital may also inhibit calcium channels, resulting in a decrease in excitatory transmitter release. The sedative-hypnotic effects of phenobarbital are likely the result of its effect on the polysynaptic midbrain reticular formation, which controls CNS arousal.
Imatinib is a drug used to treat certain types of cancer. It is currently marketed by Novartis as Gleevec (USA) or Glivec (Europe/Australia) as its mesylate salt, imatinib mesilate (INN). It is occasionally referred to as CGP57148B or STI571 (especially in older publications). It is used in treating chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and a number of other malignancies. It is the first member of a new class of agents that act by inhibiting particular tyrosine kinase enzymes, instead of non-specifically inhibiting rapidly dividing cells.
Sitagliptin is a new oral hypoglycemic (anti-diabetic drug) of the new dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor class of drugs. This enzyme-inhibiting drug is to be used either alone or in combination with metformin or a thiazolidinedione for control of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The drug works to competitively inhibit a protein/enzyme, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), that results in an increased amount of active incretins (GLP-1 and GIP), reduced amount of release of glucagon (diminishes its release) and increased release of insulin.
Diethyl phthalic acid, also known as diethyl phthalate, 1,2-diethyl phthalic acid or 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diethyl ester, is classified as a member of the benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid esters are ester derivatives of benzoic acid. Diethyl phthalic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic. This substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalic acid can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalic acid is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883) It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. (ChemoSummarizer)
2,4-D is a member of the phenoxy family of herbicides, which include:; 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin, which is a class of plant hormones. It is absorbed through the leaves and is translocated to the meristems of the plant. Uncontrolled, unsustainable growth ensues, causing stem curl-over, leaf withering, and eventual plant death. 2,4-D is typically applied as an amine salt, but more potent ester versions exist as well. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (usually referred to by its abbreviation, 2,4-D) is a common systemic pesticide/herbicide used in the control of broadleaf weeds. It is one of the most widely used herbicide in the world, and the third most commonly used in North America. 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin (plant hormone), and as such it is often used in laboratories for plant research and as a supplement in plant cell culture media such as MS medium. It was a major ingredient in Agent Orange alongside its chemically similar relative, 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid).
Praziquantel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthelmintic used in most schistosome and many cestode infestations. [PubChem]Praziquantel works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles. This paralysis is accompanied - and probably caused - by a rapid Ca 2+ influx inside the schistosome. Morphological alterations are another early effect of praziquantel. These morphological alterations are accompanied by an increased exposure of schistosome antigens at the parasite surface. The worms are then either completely destroyed in the intestine or passed in the stool. An interesting quirk of praziquantel is that it is relatively ineffective against juvenile schistosomes. While initially effective, effectiveness against schistosomes decreases until it reaches a minimum at 3-4 weeks. Effectiveness then increases again until it is once again fully effective at 6-7 weeks. Glutathione S-transferase (GST), an essential detoxification enzyme in parasitic helminths, is a major vaccine target and a drug target against schistosomiasis. Schistosome calcium ion channels are currently the only known target of praziquantel.
Dichlorvos is used as a household and public health fumigant, for crop protection and as an anthelmintic in animal feeds.Dichlorvos or 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate (DDVP) is a highly volatile organophosphate, widely used as a insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored product from insects. It is effective against mushroom flies, aphids, spider mites, caterpillars, thrips, and whiteflies in greenhouse, outdoor fruit, and vegetable crops. (Wikipedia
Derivative of noroxymorphone that is the N-cyclopropylmethyl congener of naloxone. It is a narcotic antagonist that is effective orally, longer lasting and more potent than naloxone, and has been proposed for the treatment of heroin addiction. The FDA has approved naltrexone for the treatment of alcohol dependence. [PubChem]
Doxycycline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic tetracycline derivative with similar antimicrobial activity. Animal studies suggest that it may cause less tooth staining than other tetracyclines. It is used in some areas for the treatment of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria (malaria, falciparum). [PubChem]Doxycycline, like minocycline, is lipophilic and can pass through the lipid bilayer of bacteria. Doxycycline reversibly binds to the 30 S ribosomal subunits and possibly the 50S ribosomal subunit(s), blocking the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the mRNA and inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Doxycycline prevents the normal function of the apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum, a malaria causing organism.
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
Clenbuterol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a substituted phenylaminoethanol that has beta-2 adrenomimetic properties at very low doses. It is used as a bronchodilator in asthma. [PubChem]Clenbuterol is a Beta(2) agonist similar in some structural respects to salbutamol. Agonism of the beta(2) receptor stimulates adenylyl cyclase activity which ultimately leads to downstream effects of smooth muscle relaxation in the bronchioles.
Sitagliptin is a new oral hypoglycemic (anti-diabetic drug) of the new dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor class of drugs. This enzyme-inhibiting drug is to be used either alone or in combination with metformin or a thiazolidinedione for control of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The drug works to competitively inhibit a protein/enzyme, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), that results in an increased amount of active incretins (GLP-1 and GIP), reduced amount of release of glucagon (diminishes its release) and increased release of insulin.
Used to treat allergic conjunctivitis (itching eyes), olopatadine inhibits the release of histamine from mast cells. It is a relatively selective histamine H1 antagonist that inhibits the in vivo and in vitro type 1 immediate hypersensitivity reaction including inhibition of histamine induced effects on human conjunctival epithelial cells.
Nitrazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine derivative used as an anticonvulsant and hypnotic.Nitrazepam belongs to a group of medicines called benzodiazepines. It acts on benzodiazepine receptors in the brain which are associated with the GABA receptors causing an enhanced binding of GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) to GABAA receptors. GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in inducing sleepiness, muscular relaxation and control of anxiety and fits, and slows down the central nervous system. The anticonvulsant properties of nitrazepam and other benzodiazepines may be in part or entirely due to binding to voltage-dependent sodium channels rather than benzodiazepine receptors. Sustained repetitive firing seems to be limited by benzodiazepines effect of slowing recovery of sodium channels from inactivation.
Ifosfamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a positional isomer of cyclophosphamide which is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppressive agent. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
Ranitidine (CAS: 66357-35-5) is a non-imidazole blocker of histamine receptors that mediate gastric secretion (H2 receptors). It is used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers (PubChem). Ranitidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). It is currently marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Zantac (Wikipedia).
5-Hydroxydiclofenac (5-OH-DCF) is a metabolite of Diclofenac. Diclofenac (cf. INN with trade names) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions. (Wikipedia)
Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety; Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is sold under the brand-names Celexa (U.S., Forest Laboratories, Inc.), Cipramil, Seropram (Europe and Australia) and Ciazil (Australia); A furancarbonitrile that is one of the serotonin uptake inhibitors used as an antidepressant. The drug is also effective in reducing ethanol uptake in alcoholics and is used in depressed patients who also suffer from tardive dyskinesia in preference to tricyclic antidepressants, which aggravate this condition; Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety. Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB) used in the management of hypertension. Generally, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) such as telmisartan bind to the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors with high affinity, causing inhibition of the action of angiotensin II on vascular smooth muscle, ultimately leading to a reduction in arterial blood pressure. Recent studies suggest that telmisartan may also have PPAR-gamma agonistic properties that could potentially confer beneficial metabolic effects.
Ketoprofen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a propionic acid derivative and is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with analgesic and antipyretic properties. The anti-inflammatory effects of ketoprofen are believed to be due to inhibition cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme involved in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. This results in decreased levels of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever and inflammation. Ketoprofen is a non-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor and inhibition of COX-1 is thought to confer some of its side effects, such as GI upset and ulceration. Ketoprofen is thought to have anti-bradykinin activity, as well as lysosomal membrane-stabilizing action. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation.
Atazanavir (formerly known as BMS-232632) is an antiretroviral drug of the protease inhibitor (PI) class. Like other antiretrovirals, it is used to treat infection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Atazanavir is distinguished from other PIs in that it can be given once-daily (rather than requiring multiple doses per day) and has lesser effects on the patient's lipid profile (the amounts of cholesterol and other fatty substances in the blood). Like other protease inhibitors, it is used only in combination with other HIV medications. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved atazanavir on June 20, 2003. [Wikipedia]
Iopromide is a molecule used as a contrast medium. It is marketed under the name Ultravist which is produced by Bayer Healthcare. It is a low osmolar, non-ionic contrast agent for intravascular use.
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid that is benzoic acid with a hydroxy group at the ortho position. It is obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has a role as an antiinfective agent, an antifungal agent, a keratolytic drug, an EC 1.11.1.11 (L-ascorbate peroxidase) inhibitor, a plant metabolite, an algal metabolite and a plant hormone. It is a conjugate acid of a salicylate. It is a colorless solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid). It is a plant hormone. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. Salicylic acid modulates COX1 enzymatic activity to decrease the formation of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Salicylate may competitively inhibit prostaglandin formation. Salicylate's antirheumatic (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory) actions are a result of its analgesic and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Salicylic acid works by causing the cells of the epidermis to slough off more readily, preventing pores from clogging up, and allowing room for new cell growth. Salicylic acid inhibits the oxidation of uridine-5-diphosphoglucose (UDPG) competitively with nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotide and noncompetitively with UDPG. It also competitively inhibits the transferring of glucuronyl group of uridine-5-phosphoglucuronic acid to the phenolic acceptor. The wound-healing retardation action of salicylates is probably due mainly to its inhibitory action on mucopolysaccharide synthesis. Salicylic acid is biosynthesized from the amino acid phenylalanine. In Arabidopsis thaliana, it can be synthesized via a phenylalanine-independent pathway.
Fenpropimorph (CAS: 67564-91-4) belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanes. These are organic compounds containing a phenylpropane moiety. Fenpropimorph is possibly neutral. Fenpropimorph is an agricultural fungicide used against powdery mildews on sugar beets, beans, and leek.
Oxprenolol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-selective beta blocker with some intrinsic sympathomimetic activity. It is used for the treatment of angina pectoris, abnormal heart rhythms, anxiety, and high blood pressure. Oxprenolol is a lipophilic beta blocker which passes the blood-brain barrier more easily than water-soluble beta blockers. As such, it is associated with a higher incidence of CNS-related side effects than beta blockers with more hydrophilic molecules such as atenolol, sotalol, and nadolol (Wikipedia). Like other beta-adrenergic antagonists, oxprenolol competes with adrenergic neurotransmitters such as catecholamines for binding at sympathetic receptor sites. Like propranolol and timolol, oxprenolol binds at beta(1)-adrenergic receptors in the heart and vascular smooth muscle, inhibiting the effects of the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine and decreasing heart rate, cardiac output, and systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It also blocks beta-2 adrenergic receptors located in bronchiole smooth muscle, causing vasoconstriction. By binding beta-2 receptors in the juxtaglomerular apparatus, oxprenolol inhibits the production of renin, thereby inhibiting angiotensin II and aldosterone production. Oxprenolol, therefore, inhibits the vasoconstriction and water retention due to angiotensin II and aldosterone, respectively.
Ciprofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.The bactericidal action of ciprofloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, strand supercoiling repair, and recombination.
Nordiazepam is a metabolite of Diazepam. Diazepam, first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a benzodiazepine drug. Nordazepam, also known as desoxydemoxepam, nordiazepam and desmethyldiazepam, is a 1,4-benzodiazepine derivative. Like other benzodiazepine derivatives, it has anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant and sedative properties. (Wikipedia)
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Cyprodinil is a fungicide
Fenpropimorph (CAS: 67564-91-4) belongs to the class of organic compounds known as phenylpropanes. These are organic compounds containing a phenylpropane moiety. Fenpropimorph is possibly neutral. Fenpropimorph is an agricultural fungicide used against powdery mildews on sugar beets, beans, and leek.
Thiabendazole is active against a variety of nematodes and is the drug of choice for strongyloidiasis. It has CNS side effects and hepatototoxic potential. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p919)The precise mode of action of thiabendazole on the parasite is unknown, but it most likely inhibits the helminth-specific enzyme fumarate reductase. Thiabendazole is also used as a postharvest treatment for bananas, plantains and oranges. Registered in Canada for control of silver scurf in stored potatoes Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. Thiabendazole is also a chelating agent, which means that it is used medicinally to bind metals in cases of metal poisoning, such as lead poisoning, mercury poisoning or antimony poisoning. Thiabendazole is vermicidal and/or vermifugal against <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> ("common roundworm"), <i>Strongyloides stercoralis</i> (threadworm), <i>Necator americanus</i>, <i>Ancylostoma duodenale</i> (hookworm), <i>Trichuris trichiura</i> (whipworm), <i>Ancylostoma braziliense</i> (dog and cat hookworm), <i>Toxocara canis</i>, <i>Toxocara cati</i> (ascarids), and <i>Enterobius vermicularis</i> (pinworm). Thiabendazole also suppresses egg and/or larval production and may inhibit the subsequent development of those eggs or larvae which are passed in the feces
Saccharin, ammonium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States). Saccharin belongs to the family of aromatic homomonocyclic compounds. These are aromatic compounds containing only one ring, which is homocyclic.
Hydrocodone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic related to codeine, but more potent and more addicting by weight. It is used also as cough suppressant. [PubChem]Hydrocodone acts as a weak agonist at OP1, OP2, and OP3 opiate receptors within the central nervous system (CNS). Hydrocodone primarily affects OP3 receptors, which are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as modulators, both positive and negative, of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids such as hydrocodone also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin, and glucagon. Opioids close N-type voltage-operated calcium channels (OP2-receptor agonist) and open calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (OP3 and OP1 receptor agonist). This results in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
Lamotrigine is an anticonvulsant drug used in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder. For epilepsy it is used to treat partial seizures, primary and secondary tonic-clonic seizures, and seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Lamotrigine also acts as a mood stabilizer. It is the first medication since lithium granted Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the maintenance treatment of bipolar type I. Chemically unrelated to other anticonvulsants, lamotrigine has relatively few side-effects and does not require blood monitoring. The exact way lamotrigine works is unknown. [Wikipedia]
Systemic agricultural insecticide, acaricide and nematocid
Sotalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an adrenergic beta-antagonist that is used in the treatment of life-threatening arrhythmias (PubChem). Sotalol has both beta-adrenoreceptor blocking (Vaughan Williams Class I) and cardiac action potential duration prolongation (Vaughan Williams Class I) antiarrhythmic properties. Sotalol is a racemic mixture of d- and l-sotalol. Both isomers have similar Class I antiarrhythmic effects, while the l-isomer is responsible for virtually all of the beta-blocking activity. Sotalol inhibits response to adrenergic stimuli by competitively blocking &#946;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors within the myocardium and &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptors within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle. The electrophysiologic effects of sotalol may be due to its selective inhibition of the rapidly activating component of the potassium channel involved in the repolarization of cardiac cells. The class II electrophysiologic effects are caused by an increase in sinus cycle length (slowed heart rate), decreased AV nodal conduction, and increased AV nodal refractoriness, while the class III electrophysiological effects include prolongation of the atrial and ventricular monophasic action potentials, and effective refractory period prolongation of atrial muscle, ventricular muscle, and atrio-ventricular accessory pathways (where present) in both the anterograde and retrograde directions.
4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol, also known as 2-Hydroxyatrazine, is classified as a member of the 1,3,5-triazines. 1,3,5-triazines are compounds containing a triazine ring, which is a heterocyclic ring, similar to the six-member benzene ring but with three carbons replaced by nitrogen atoms, at ring positions 1, 3, and 5. 4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-1,3,5-triazin-2-ol is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and relatively neutral
2,4-D is a member of the phenoxy family of herbicides, which include:; 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin, which is a class of plant hormones. It is absorbed through the leaves and is translocated to the meristems of the plant. Uncontrolled, unsustainable growth ensues, causing stem curl-over, leaf withering, and eventual plant death. 2,4-D is typically applied as an amine salt, but more potent ester versions exist as well. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (usually referred to by its abbreviation, 2,4-D) is a common systemic pesticide/herbicide used in the control of broadleaf weeds. It is one of the most widely used herbicide in the world, and the third most commonly used in North America. 2,4-D is a synthetic auxin (plant hormone), and as such it is often used in laboratories for plant research and as a supplement in plant cell culture media such as MS medium. It was a major ingredient in Agent Orange alongside its chemically similar relative, 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid).
Ticlopidine is an effective inhibitor of platelet aggregation. The drug has been found to significantly reduce infarction size in acute myocardial infarcts and is an effective antithrombotic agent in arteriovenous fistulas, aorto-coronary bypass grafts, ischemic heart disease, venous thrombosis, and arteriosclerosis. [PubChem]
Methamphetamine is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug. It is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. Methamphetamine can induce effects such as euphoria, increased alertness and energy, and enhanced self-esteem. It is a scheduled drug in most countries due to its high potential for addiction and abuse.
A tricylic dibenzodiazepine, classified as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It binds several types of central nervous system receptors, and displays a unique pharmacological profile. Clozapine is a serotonin antagonist, with strong binding to 5-HT 2A/2C receptor subtype. It also displays strong affinity to several dopaminergic receptors, but shows only weak antagonism at the dopamine D2 receptor, a receptor commonly thought to modulate neuroleptic activity. Agranulocytosis is a major adverse effect associated with administration of this agent. [PubChem]
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
One of the carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p337)
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
Ritonavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an HIV protease inhibitor that works by interfering with the reproductive cycle of HIV. [PubChem]Ritonavir inhibits the HIV viral proteinase enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB) used in the management of hypertension. Generally, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) such as telmisartan bind to the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors with high affinity, causing inhibition of the action of angiotensin II on vascular smooth muscle, ultimately leading to a reduction in arterial blood pressure. Recent studies suggest that telmisartan may also have PPAR-gamma agonistic properties that could potentially confer beneficial metabolic effects.
Aspartame is the name for an artificial, non-carbohydrate sweetener, aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester; i.e., the methyl ester of the dipeptide of the amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is marketed under a number of trademark names, such as Equal, and Canderel, and is an ingredient of approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide. It is commonly used in diet soft drinks, and is often provided as a table condiment. It is also used in some brands of chewable vitamin supplements. In the European Union, it is also known under the E number (additive code) E951. Aspartame is also one of the sugar substitutes used by diabetics. Upon ingestion, aspartame breaks down into several constituent chemicals, including the naturally-occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine which is a health hazard to the few people born with phenylketonuria, a congenital inability to process phenylalanine. Aspartic acid is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Approximately 40% of aspartame (by mass) is broken down into aspartic acid. Because aspartame is metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike aspartic acid-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike blood plasma levels of aspartate. Aspartic acid is in a class of chemicals known as excitotoxins. Abnormally high levels of excitotoxins have been shown in hundreds of animals studies to cause damage to areas of the brain unprotected by the blood-brain barrier and a variety of chronic diseases arising out of this neurotoxicity.
Flucytosine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a fluorinated cytosine analog that is used as an antifungal agent. [PubChem]Although the exact mode of action is unknown, it has been proposed that flucytosine acts directly on fungal organisms by competitive inhibition of purine and pyrimidine uptake and indirectly by intracellular metabolism to 5-fluorouracil. Flucytosine enters the fungal cell via cytosine permease; thus, flucytosine is metabolized to 5-fluorouracil within fungal organisms. The 5-fluorouracil is extensively incorporated into fungal RNA and inhibits synthesis of both DNA and RNA. The result is unbalanced growth and death of the fungal organism. It also appears to be an inhibitor of fungal thymidylate synthase.
Potential high-intensity sweetener, sweetness variously stated to be 40 x sucrose and 7000-13000 x sucrose Neotame is an artificial sweetener made by NutraSweet that is between 7,000 and 13,000 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). In the European Union it is known by the E number E961. Neotame is moderately heat stable and extremely potent. Neotame is rapidly metabolized, completely eliminated, and does not accumulate in the body
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. It is used in the treatment of severe anxiety disorders, as a hypnotic in the short-term management of insomnia, as a sedative and premedicant, as an anticonvulsant, and in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p589).
Acamprosate, also known by the brand name Campral&trade;, is a drug used for treating alcohol dependence. Acamprosate is thought to stabilize the chemical balance in the brain that would otherwise be disrupted by alcoholism, possibly by blocking glutaminergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, while gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors are activated. Reports indicate that acamprosate only works with a combination of attending support groups and abstinence from alcohol. Certain serious side effects include allergic reactions, irregular heartbeats, and low or high blood pressure, while less serious side effects include headaches, insomnia, and impotence. Acamprosate should not be taken by people with kidney problems or allergies to the drug.
Ribavirin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a nucleoside antimetabolite antiviral agent that blocks nucleic acid synthesis and is used against both RNA and DNA viruses. [PubChem]Ribavirin is readily phosphorylated intracellularly by adenosine kinase to ribavirin mono-, di-, and triphosphate metabolites. Ribavirin triphosphate (RTP) is a potent competitive inhibitor of inosine monophosphate (IMP) dehydrogenase, viral RNA polymerase and messenger RNA (mRNA) guanylyltransferase (viral) and can be incorporated into RNA in RNA viral species. Guanylyltranserase inhibition stops the capping of mRNA. These diverse effects result in a marked reduction of intracellular guanosine triphosphate (GTP) pools and inhibition of viral RNA and protein synthesis. Ribavirin is also incorporated into the viral genome causing lethal mutagenesis and a subsequent decrease in specific viral infectivity.
Saccharin, ammonium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States). Saccharin belongs to the family of aromatic homomonocyclic compounds. These are aromatic compounds containing only one ring, which is homocyclic.
Methamphetamine is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug. It is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. Methamphetamine can induce effects such as euphoria, increased alertness and energy, and enhanced self-esteem. It is a scheduled drug in most countries due to its high potential for addiction and abuse.
Nystatin is a polyene antifungal drug to which many molds and yeasts are sensitive, including Candida spp. Nystatin has some toxicity associated with it when given intravenously, but it is not absorbed across intact skin or mucous membranes. It is considered a relatively safe drug for treating oral or gastrointestinal fungal infections.
Oxybutynin is an anticholinergic medication used to relieve urinary and bladder difficulties, including frequent urination and inability to control urination, by decreasing muscle spasms of the bladder. It competitively antagonizes the M1, M2, and M3 subtypes of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
Lovastatin is a cholesterol-lowering agent that belongs to the class of medications called statins. It was the second agent of this class discovered. It was discovered by Alfred Alberts and his team at Merck in 1978 after screening only 18 compounds over 2 weeks. The agent, also known as mevinolin, was isolated from the fungi <i>Aspergillus terreus</i>. Research on this compound was suddenly shut down in 1980 and the drug was not approved until 1987. Interesting, Akira Endo at Sankyo Co. (Japan) patented lovastatin isolated from <i>Monascus ruber</i> four months before Merck. Lovastatin was found to be 2 times more potent than its predecessor, mevastatin, the first discovered statin. Like mevastatin, lovastatin is structurally similar to hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG), a substituent of HMG-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA), a substrate of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway via the mevalonic acid pathway. Lovastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase with a binding affinity 20,000 times greater than HMG-CoA. Lovastatin differs structurally from mevastatin by a single methyl group at the 6 position. Lovastatin is a prodrug that is activated by <i>in vivo</i> hydrolysis of the lactone ring. It, along with mevastatin, has served as one of the lead compounds for the development of the synthetic compounds used today.
para-Trifluoromethylphenol is only found in individuals that have used or taken Fluoxetine. para-Trifluoromethylphenol is a metabolite of Fluoxetine. Para-trifluoromethylphenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. It is used in the treatment of severe anxiety disorders, as a hypnotic in the short-term management of insomnia, as a sedative and premedicant, as an anticonvulsant, and in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p589).
Rosuvastatin is an antilipemic agent that competitively inhibits hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. HMG-CoA reducuase catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonic acid, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis. Rosuvastatin belongs to a class of medications called statins and is used to reduce plasma cholesterol levels and prevent cardiovascular disease.
Torasemide (rINN) or torsemide (USAN) is a pyridine-sulfonylurea type loop diuretic mainly used in the management of edema associated with congestive heart failure. It is also used at low doses for the management of hypertension. It is marketed under the brand name Demadex. [Wikipedia]
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
Tramadol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic proposed for moderate to severe pain. It may be habituating (PubChem). Tramadol and its O-desmethyl metabolite (M1) are selective, weak OP3-receptor agonists. Opiate receptors are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as both positive and negative regulators of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP is located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. The analgesic properties of tramadol can be attributed to norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake blockade in the CNS, which inhibits pain transmission in the spinal cord. The (+) enantiomer has a higher affinity for the OP3 receptor and preferentially inhibits serotonin uptake and enhances serotonin release. The (-) enantiomer preferentially inhibits norepinephrine reuptake by stimulating alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors.
Chlordiazepoxide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal. [PubChem]Chlordiazepoxide binds to stereospecific benzodiazepine (BZD) binding sites on GABA (A) receptor complexes at several sites within the central nervous system, including the limbic system and reticular formation. This results in an increased binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the GABA(A) receptor.BZDs, therefore, enhance GABA-mediated chloride influx through GABA receptor channels, causing membrane hyperpolarization. The net neuro-inhibitory effects result in the observed sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant properties.
Benzothiazole, also known as BT or benzosulfonazole, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzothiazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom). This ring is a potential component in nonlinear optics (NLO). The nine atoms of the bicycle and the attached substituents are coplanar. Although the parent compound, benzothiazole is not widely used, many of its derivatives are found in commercial products or in nature. Benzothiazole is a coffee, cooked, and gasoline tasting compound. benzothiazole is found, on average, in the highest concentration in safflowers. benzothiazole has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as common persimmons, fruits, guava, potato, and tea. This could make benzothiazole a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Firefly luciferin can be considered a derivative of benzothiazole. The compound is used also used as an insecticide and food flavoring agent. Some drugs contain this group, examples being riluzole and pramipexole. It is colorless, slightly viscous liquid. It is a thermally stable electron-withdrawing moiety with numerous applications in dyes such as thioflavin. Benzothiazole is an aromatic heterocyclic compound with the chemical formula C7H5NS.
Valsartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used to treat a variety of cardiac conditions including hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and heart failure. Valsartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Valsartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Derivative of noroxymorphone that is the N-cyclopropylmethyl congener of naloxone. It is a narcotic antagonist that is effective orally, longer lasting and more potent than naloxone, and has been proposed for the treatment of heroin addiction. The FDA has approved naltrexone for the treatment of alcohol dependence. [PubChem]
Furosemide or frusemide is a loop diuretic used in the treatment of congestive heart failure and edema. It is most commonly marketed by Aventis Pharma under the brand name Lasix. It has also been used to prevent thoroughbred race horses from bleeding through the nose during races. An antibiotic isolated from the fermentation broth of Fusidium coccineum. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) It acts by inhibiting translocation during protein synthesis.
Monoethylglycinexylidide, also known as norlidocaine or MEGX, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as alpha-amino acid amides. These are amide derivatives of alpha-amino acids. Monoethylglycinexylidide is a very strong basic compound (based on its pKa). Monoethylglycinexylidide is a metabolite of lidocaine, also known as lignocaine. Lidocaine (trade name: Xylocaine) is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning, and pain from skin inflammations, is injected as a dental anesthetic, or is injected as a local anesthetic for minor surgery (Wikipedia). Monoethylglycinexylidide and formaldehyde can be biosynthesized from lidocaine via the enzymes cytochrome P450 1A2 and cytochrome P450 3A4.
Desvenlafaxine, the major active metabolite of venlafaxine, is an antidepressant from the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI class). Desvenlafaxine may be used to treat major depressive disorder and is being studied for use in the management of vasomotor symptoms in postmenopausal women.
Derivative of noroxymorphone that is the N-cyclopropylmethyl congener of naloxone. It is a narcotic antagonist that is effective orally, longer lasting and more potent than naloxone, and has been proposed for the treatment of heroin addiction. The FDA has approved naltrexone for the treatment of alcohol dependence. [PubChem]
Doxepin hydrochloride is a dibenzoxepin-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, doxepin does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, doxepin exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as doxepin and amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. Doxepin has less sedative and anticholinergic effects than amitriptyline. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Doxepin may be used to treat depression and insomnia. Unlabeled indications include chronic and neuropathic pain, and anxiety. Doxepin may also be used as a second line agent to treat idiopathic urticaria.
Sulfentrazone is a herbicide used against broad-leaved weeds in soya bean
Chlorthalidone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzenesulfonamide-phthalimidine that tautomerizes to a benzophenones form. It is considered a thiazide-like diuretic. [PubChem]Chlorthalidone inhibits sodium ion transport across the renal tubular epithelium in the cortical diluting segment of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. By increasing the delivery of sodium to the distal renal tubule, Chlorthalidone indirectly increases potassium excretion via the sodium-potassium exchange mechanism.
Amitriptyline hydrochloride is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amitriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amitriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amitriptyline may be used to treat depression, chronic pain (unlabeled use), irritable bowel syndrome (unlabeled use), diabetic neuropathy (unlabeled use), post-traumatic stress disorder (unlabeled use), and for migraine prophylaxis (unlabeled use).
Oseltamivir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an acetamido cyclohexene that is a structural homolog of sialic acid and inhibits neuraminidase. [PubChem]Oseltamivir is an ethyl ester prodrug requiring ester hydrolysis for conversion to the active form, oseltamivir carboxylate. The proposed mechanism of action of oseltamivir is inhibition of influenza virus neuraminidase with the possibility of alteration of virus particle aggregation and release.
A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits histamine binding to histamine H2 receptors. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits gastric acid secretion, as well as pepsin and gastrins output. It also blocks the activity of cytochrome P-450 which might explain proposals for use in neoadjuvant therapy. [PubChem]
Linezolid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic antibiotic, the first of the oxazolidinone class, used for the treatment of infections caused by multi-resistant bacteria including streptococcus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Linezolid is a synthetic antibacterial agent of the oxazolidinone class of antibiotics. It has in vitro activity against aerobic Gram positive bacteria, certain Gram negative bacteria and anaerobic microorganisms. It selectively inhibits bacterial protein synthesis through binding to sites on the bacterial ribosome and prevents the formation of a functional 70S-initiation complex. Specifically, linezolid binds to a site on the bacterial 23S ribosomal RNA of the 50S subunit and prevents the formation of a functional 70S initiation complex, which is an essential component of the bacterial translation process. The results of time-kill studies have shown linezolid to be bacteriostatic against enterococci and staphylococci. For streptococci, linezolid was found to be bactericidal for the majority of strains. Linezolid is also a reversible, nonselective inhibitor of monoamine oxidase. Therefore, linezolid has the potential for interaction with adrenergic and serotonergic agents.
Diclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt. [PubChem]The antiinflammatory effects of diclofenac are believed to be due to inhibition of both leukocyte migration and the enzyme cylooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), leading to the peripheral inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. As prostaglandins sensitize pain receptors, inhibition of their synthesis is responsible for the analgesic effects of diclofenac. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat dissipation.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
Niflumic Acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [PubChem]Niflumic acid is able to inhibit both phospholipase A2 as well as COX-2, thereby acting as an antiinflamatory and pain reduction agent.
Atenolol is a so-called beta1-selective (or 'cardioselective') drug. That means that it exerts greater blocking activity on myocardial beta1-receptors than on beta2 ones in the lung. The beta2 receptors are responsible to keep the bronchial system open. If these receptors are blocked, bronchospasm with serious lack of oxygen in the body can result. However, due to its cardioselective properties, the risk of bronchospastic reactions if using atenolol is reduced compared to nonselective drugs as propranolol. Nonetheless, this reaction may also be encountered with atenolol, particularly with high doses. Extreme caution should be exerted if atenolol is given to asthma patients, who are particularly at risk; the dose should be as low as possible. If an asthma attack occurs, the inhalation of a beta2-mimetic antiasthmatic, such as hexoprenalin or salbutamol, will usually suppress the symptoms. Atenolol (trade name Tenormin) can be used to treat cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, arrhythmias, and treatment of myocardial infarction after the acute event. Patients with compensated congestive heart failure may be treated with atenolol as a co medication (usually together with an ACE inhibitor, a diuretic and a digitalis-glycoside, if indicated). In patients with congestive heart failure, it reduces the need for and the consumption of oxygen of the heart muscle. It is very important to start with low doses, as atenolol reduces also the muscular power of the heart, which is an undesired effect in congestive heart failure.
Eprosartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It acts on the renin-angiotensin system in two ways to decrease total peripheral resistance. First, it blocks the binding of angiotensin II to AT1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle, causing vascular dilatation. Second, it inhibits sympathetic norepinephrine production, further reducing blood pressure.
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the liver to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of lymphoma and leukemia. Its side effect, alopecia, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer. [PubChem]
Oxipurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. Oxipurinol is potentially used for treatment of congestive heart failure. PMID: 15139781.
4'-Hydroxydiclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken Diclofenac. 4'-Hydroxydiclofenac is a metabolite of Diclofenac. 4'-hydroxydiclofenac belongs to the family of Phenylacetic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenylacetic acid moiety, which consists of a phenyl group substituted at the second position by an acetic acid.
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
5-Hydroxydiclofenac (5-OH-DCF) is a metabolite of Diclofenac. Diclofenac (cf. INN with trade names) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions. (Wikipedia)
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Metoprolol is a selective beta1 receptor blocker used in treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system. It is marketed under the brand name Lopressor by Novartis, and Toprol (in the USA); Seleken or Selokeen (elsewhere); A selective adrenergic beta-1-blocking agent with no stimulatory action. It's binding to plasma albumin is weaker than alprenolol and it may be useful in the treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system; Metoprolol is a selective beta1 receptor blocker used in treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system. It is marketed under the brand name Lopressor by Novartis, and Toprol (in the USA); Seleken or Selokeen (elsewhere); as Minax by Alphapharm (in Australia), as Betaloc by AstraZeneca and as Corvitol by Berlin-Chemie AG; A selective adrenergic beta-1-blocking agent with no stimulatory action. It's binding to plasma albumin is weaker than alprenolol and it may be useful in angina pectoris, hypertension, or cardiac arrhythmias; as Minax by Alphapharm (in Australia), as Betaloc by AstraZeneca and as Corvitol by Berlin-Chemie AG.
A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits histamine binding to histamine H2 receptors. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits gastric acid secretion, as well as pepsin and gastrins output. It also blocks the activity of cytochrome P-450 which might explain proposals for use in neoadjuvant therapy. [PubChem]
Doxazosin is a quinazoline-derivative that selectively antagonizes postsynaptic &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors. It may be used to mild to moderate hypertension and in the management of symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-Receptors mediate contraction and hypertrophic growth of smooth muscle cells. Antagonism of these receptors leads to smooth muscle relaxation in the peripheral vasculature and prostate gland.
Tolnaftate is a synthetic over-the-counter anti-fungal agent. It may come as a cream, powder, spray, or liquid aerosol, and is used to treat jock itch, athlete's foot and ringworm. It is sold under several brand names, most notably Tinactin (Schering-Plough Corporation) and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.and Odor-Eaters (Combe Incorporated). Other brands are Absorbine, Aftate, Desenex, Genaspor, NP 27, and Ting.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Enoxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum 6-fluoronaphthyridinone antibacterial agent (fluoroquinolones) structurally related to nalidixic acid. [PubChem]Enoxacin exerts its bactericidal action via the inhibition of the essential bacterial enzyme DNA gyrase (DNA Topoisomerase II).
Erythromycin belongs to the class of organic compounds known as xanthines. These are purine derivatives with a ketone group conjugated at carbons 2 and 6 of the purine moiety. Thus, erythromycin is considered to be a macrolide lipid molecule. Erythromycin is a very hydrophobic molecule, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with the translocation of amino acids during the translation and assembly of proteins. Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
norfentanyl is a metabolite of fentanyl. Fentanyl (also known as fentanil, brand names Sublimaze, Actiq, Durogesic, Duragesic, Fentora, Matrifen, Haldid, Onsolis, Instanyl, Abstral, Lazanda and others) is a potent, synthetic narcotic analgesic with a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is a strong agonist at the μ-opioid receptors. Historically it has been used to treat breakthrough pain and is commonly used in pre-procedures as a pain reliever as well as an anesthetic in combination with a benzodiazepine. (Wikipedia)
Diethyl phthalic acid, also known as diethyl phthalate, 1,2-diethyl phthalic acid or 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diethyl ester, is classified as a member of the benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid esters are ester derivatives of benzoic acid. Diethyl phthalic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic. This substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalic acid can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalic acid is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883) It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. (ChemoSummarizer)
Irbesartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) used mainly for the treatment of hypertension. It competes with angiotensin II for binding at the AT1 receptor subtype. Unlike ACE inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. The use of ARBs is pending revision due to findings from several clinical trials suggesting that this class of drugs may be associated with a small increased risk of cancer.
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Ribavirin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a nucleoside antimetabolite antiviral agent that blocks nucleic acid synthesis and is used against both RNA and DNA viruses. [PubChem]Ribavirin is readily phosphorylated intracellularly by adenosine kinase to ribavirin mono-, di-, and triphosphate metabolites. Ribavirin triphosphate (RTP) is a potent competitive inhibitor of inosine monophosphate (IMP) dehydrogenase, viral RNA polymerase and messenger RNA (mRNA) guanylyltransferase (viral) and can be incorporated into RNA in RNA viral species. Guanylyltranserase inhibition stops the capping of mRNA. These diverse effects result in a marked reduction of intracellular guanosine triphosphate (GTP) pools and inhibition of viral RNA and protein synthesis. Ribavirin is also incorporated into the viral genome causing lethal mutagenesis and a subsequent decrease in specific viral infectivity.
A drug that has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic activities. It is especially effective in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. It also is useful in rheumatoid arthritis and Reiter&#39;s syndrome (investigational indication). Although phenylbutazone is effective in gouty arthritis, risk/benefit considerations indicate that this drug should not be employed for this disease. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p1822)
Dicloxacillin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the penicillins which is resistant to penicillinase. [PubChem]Dicloxacillin exerts a bactericidal action against penicillin-susceptible microorganisms during the state of active multiplication. All penicillins inhibit the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall. By binding to specific penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, dicloxacillin inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Cell lysis is then mediated by bacterial cell wall autolytic enzymes such as autolysins; it is possible that dicloxacillin interferes with an autolysin inhibitor.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Rivastigmine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a parasympathomimetic or cholinergic agent for the treatment of mild to moderate dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Rivastigmine is a cholinesterase inhibitor that inhibits both butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase.Rivastigmine is a carbamate derivative that is structurally related to physostigmine, but not to donepezil and tacrine. The precise mechanism of rivastigmine has not been fully determined, but it is suggested that rivastigmine binds reversibly with and inactivates chlolinesterase (eg. acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase), preventing the hydrolysis of acetycholine, and thus leading to an increased concentration of acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses. The anticholinesterase activity of rivastigmine is relatively specific for brain acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase compared with those in peripheral tissues.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Triamterene, also known as dyrenium or ademin, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pteridines and derivatives. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a pteridine moiety, which consists of a pyrimidine fused to a pyrazine ring to form pyrimido(4,5-b)pyrazine. Triamterene is a drug. While there is a lack of randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of triamterene in the treatment of Ménière's disease, the typical treatment is 37.5 mg of triamterene with 25 mg of hydrochlorothiazide 1-2 capsules daily. triamterene can be converted into triamterene through the action of the enzyme solute carrier family 22 member 2. In humans, triamterene is involved in the metabolic disorder called the triamterene action pathway. Triamterene directly blocks the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the lumen side of the kidney collecting tubule. Hepatic impairment: Use with caution in people with severe hepatic dysfunction; in cirrhosis, avoid electrolyte and acid/base imbalances that might lead to hepatic encephalopathy. The patents had expired on Dyazide in 1980, but complications arose with the introductions of generics, because the formulation of Dyazide resulted in variable batches that made it impossible for generic manufacturers to show that their versions were bioequivalent.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Oseltamivir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an acetamido cyclohexene that is a structural homolog of sialic acid and inhibits neuraminidase. [PubChem]Oseltamivir is an ethyl ester prodrug requiring ester hydrolysis for conversion to the active form, oseltamivir carboxylate. The proposed mechanism of action of oseltamivir is inhibition of influenza virus neuraminidase with the possibility of alteration of virus particle aggregation and release.
Methomyl is an Agricultural insecticide and nematocid
Propranolol is a widely used non-cardioselective beta-adrenergic antagonist. Propranolol is used in the treatment or prevention of many disorders including acute myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, angina pectoris, hypertension, hypertensive emergencies, hyperthyroidism, migraine, pheochromocytoma, menopause, and anxiety. --PubChem; Propranolol is a highly lipophilic drug achieving high concentrations in the brain. The duration of action of a single oral dose is longer than the half-life indicates and may be up to 12 hours, if the single dose is high enough (e.g. 80 mg). Effective plasma concentrations are between 10-100 ng/mL. -- Wikipedia; It was the first successful beta blocker developed. Propranolol is commonly marketed by Wyeth under the trade name Inderal.
Sotalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an adrenergic beta-antagonist that is used in the treatment of life-threatening arrhythmias (PubChem). Sotalol has both beta-adrenoreceptor blocking (Vaughan Williams Class I) and cardiac action potential duration prolongation (Vaughan Williams Class I) antiarrhythmic properties. Sotalol is a racemic mixture of d- and l-sotalol. Both isomers have similar Class I antiarrhythmic effects, while the l-isomer is responsible for virtually all of the beta-blocking activity. Sotalol inhibits response to adrenergic stimuli by competitively blocking &#946;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors within the myocardium and &#946;<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic receptors within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle. The electrophysiologic effects of sotalol may be due to its selective inhibition of the rapidly activating component of the potassium channel involved in the repolarization of cardiac cells. The class II electrophysiologic effects are caused by an increase in sinus cycle length (slowed heart rate), decreased AV nodal conduction, and increased AV nodal refractoriness, while the class III electrophysiological effects include prolongation of the atrial and ventricular monophasic action potentials, and effective refractory period prolongation of atrial muscle, ventricular muscle, and atrio-ventricular accessory pathways (where present) in both the anterograde and retrograde directions.
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
Metoprolol is a selective beta1 receptor blocker used in treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system. It is marketed under the brand name Lopressor by Novartis, and Toprol (in the USA); Seleken or Selokeen (elsewhere); A selective adrenergic beta-1-blocking agent with no stimulatory action. It's binding to plasma albumin is weaker than alprenolol and it may be useful in the treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system; Metoprolol is a selective beta1 receptor blocker used in treatment of several diseases of the cardiovascular system. It is marketed under the brand name Lopressor by Novartis, and Toprol (in the USA); Seleken or Selokeen (elsewhere); as Minax by Alphapharm (in Australia), as Betaloc by AstraZeneca and as Corvitol by Berlin-Chemie AG; A selective adrenergic beta-1-blocking agent with no stimulatory action. It's binding to plasma albumin is weaker than alprenolol and it may be useful in angina pectoris, hypertension, or cardiac arrhythmias; as Minax by Alphapharm (in Australia), as Betaloc by AstraZeneca and as Corvitol by Berlin-Chemie AG.
Vigabatrin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analogue of gamma-aminobutyric acid. It is an irreversible inhibitor of 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, the enzyme responsible for the catabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid. (From Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 31st ed)It is believed that vigabatrin increases brain concentrations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, by irreversibly inhibiting enzymes that catabolize GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase GABA-T) or block the reuptake of GABA into glia and nerve endings. Vigabatrin may also work by suppressing repetitive neuronal firing through inhibition of voltage-sensitive sodium channels.
Eprosartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It acts on the renin-angiotensin system in two ways to decrease total peripheral resistance. First, it blocks the binding of angiotensin II to AT1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle, causing vascular dilatation. Second, it inhibits sympathetic norepinephrine production, further reducing blood pressure.
It is used in foods as a binder, emulsifier and anticaking agent.
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3&#39;-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by a hydrogen. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. Didanosine is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA by binding to reverse transcriptase; ddI is then metabolized to dideoxyadenosine triphosphate, its putative active metabolite. [PubChem]
Verapamil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Verapamil is a calcium channel blocker that is a class IV anti-arrhythmia agent. [PubChem]Verapamil inhibits voltage-dependent calcium channels. Specifically, its effect on L-type calcium channels in the heart causes a reduction in ionotropy and chronotropy, thuis reducing heart rate and blood pressure. Verapamil's mechanism of effect in cluster headache is thought to be linked to its calcium-channel blocker effect, but which channel subtypes are involved is presently not known. [PubChem] Calcium channel antagonists can be quite toxic. In the management of poisoning, early recognition is critical. Calcium channel antagonists are frequently prescribed, and the potential for serious morbidity and mortality with over dosage is significant. Ingestion of these agents should be suspected in any patient who presents in an overdose situation with unexplained hypotension and conduction abnormalities. The potential for toxicity should be noted in patients with underlying hepatic or renal dysfunction who are receiving therapeutic doses. (PMID 8213877).
Iopromide is a molecule used as a contrast medium. It is marketed under the name Ultravist which is produced by Bayer Healthcare. It is a low osmolar, non-ionic contrast agent for intravascular use.
Sulfadimethoxine (trade name Di-Methox, Albon) is a sulfonamide antibiotic. Sulfadimethoxine is used to treat many infections including treatment of respiratory, urinary tract, enteric, and soft tissue infections. It is most frequently used in veterinary medicine, although it is approved in some countries for use in humans. Sulfadimethoxine inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid) from para-aminobenzoic acid.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Oxacillin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic similar to flucloxacillin used in resistant staphylococci infections. [PubChem]By binding to specific penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, Oxacillin inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Cell lysis is then mediated by bacterial cell wall autolytic enzymes such as autolysins; it is possible that Oxacillin interferes with an autolysin inhibitor.
Exemestane is an oral steroidal aromatase inhibitor used in the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive (also called hormone-receptor-positive, estrogen-responsive) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It acts as a false substrate for the aromatase enzyme, and is processed to an intermediate that binds irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme causing its inactivation.
(-)-alpha-Narcotine is found in opium poppy. (-)-alpha-Narcotine is an alkaloid from Papaver somniferum (opium poppy).Noscapine (also known as Narcotine, Nectodon, Nospen, and Anarcotine) is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid from plants of the Papaveraceae family, without significant painkilling properties. This agent is primarily used for its antitussive (cough-suppressing) effects. It has also been shown to have anticancer activity. (Wikipedia).
Sulfadimethoxine (trade name Di-Methox, Albon) is a sulfonamide antibiotic. Sulfadimethoxine is used to treat many infections including treatment of respiratory, urinary tract, enteric, and soft tissue infections. It is most frequently used in veterinary medicine, although it is approved in some countries for use in humans. Sulfadimethoxine inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid (pteroylglutamic acid) from para-aminobenzoic acid.
Verapamil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Verapamil is a calcium channel blocker that is a class IV anti-arrhythmia agent. [PubChem]Verapamil inhibits voltage-dependent calcium channels. Specifically, its effect on L-type calcium channels in the heart causes a reduction in ionotropy and chronotropy, thuis reducing heart rate and blood pressure. Verapamil's mechanism of effect in cluster headache is thought to be linked to its calcium-channel blocker effect, but which channel subtypes are involved is presently not known. [PubChem] Calcium channel antagonists can be quite toxic. In the management of poisoning, early recognition is critical. Calcium channel antagonists are frequently prescribed, and the potential for serious morbidity and mortality with over dosage is significant. Ingestion of these agents should be suspected in any patient who presents in an overdose situation with unexplained hypotension and conduction abnormalities. The potential for toxicity should be noted in patients with underlying hepatic or renal dysfunction who are receiving therapeutic doses. (PMID 8213877).
Diethyl phthalic acid, also known as diethyl phthalate, 1,2-diethyl phthalic acid or 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid diethyl ester, is classified as a member of the benzoic acid esters. Benzoic acid esters are ester derivatives of benzoic acid. Diethyl phthalic acid is considered to be practically insoluble (in water) and basic. This substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalic acid can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalic acid is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883) It is a non-carcinogenic (not listed by IARC) potentially toxic compound. (ChemoSummarizer)
A pyrimidine inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase, it is an antibacterial related to pyrimethamine. The interference with folic acid metabolism may cause a depression of hematopoiesis. It is potentiated by sulfonamides and the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination is the form most often used. It is sometimes used alone as an antimalarial. Trimethoprim resistance has been reported. [PubChem]
Flucytosine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a fluorinated cytosine analog that is used as an antifungal agent. [PubChem]Although the exact mode of action is unknown, it has been proposed that flucytosine acts directly on fungal organisms by competitive inhibition of purine and pyrimidine uptake and indirectly by intracellular metabolism to 5-fluorouracil. Flucytosine enters the fungal cell via cytosine permease; thus, flucytosine is metabolized to 5-fluorouracil within fungal organisms. The 5-fluorouracil is extensively incorporated into fungal RNA and inhibits synthesis of both DNA and RNA. The result is unbalanced growth and death of the fungal organism. It also appears to be an inhibitor of fungal thymidylate synthase.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Candesartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. It is administered orally as the prodrug, candesartan cilexetil, which is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, candesartan, during absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Candesartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Candesartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries
Norfloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase. [PubChem]The bactericidal action of Norfloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, and recombination. Norfloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterias. The fluorine atom at the 6 position increases potency against gram-negative organisms, and the piperazine moiety at the 7 position is responsible for anti-pseudomonal activity
Mexiletine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antiarrhythmic agent pharmacologically similar to lidocaine. It may have some anticonvulsant properties. [PubChem]Mexiletine, like lidocaine, inhibits the inward sodium current required for the initiation and conduction of impulses, thus reducing the rate of rise of the action potential, Phase 0. It achieves this reduced sodium current by inhibiting sodium channels. Mexiletine decreases the effective refractory period (ERP) in Purkinje fibers in the heart. The decrease in ERP is of lesser magnitude than the decrease in action potential duration (APD), which results in an increase in the ERP/APD ratio. It does not significantly affect resting membrane potential or sinus node automaticity, left ventricular function, systolic arterial blood pressure, atrioventricular (AV) conduction velocity, or QRS or QT intervals
Chlordiazepoxide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal. [PubChem]Chlordiazepoxide binds to stereospecific benzodiazepine (BZD) binding sites on GABA (A) receptor complexes at several sites within the central nervous system, including the limbic system and reticular formation. This results in an increased binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the GABA(A) receptor.BZDs, therefore, enhance GABA-mediated chloride influx through GABA receptor channels, causing membrane hyperpolarization. The net neuro-inhibitory effects result in the observed sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant properties.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Enrofloxacin is a veterinary antibacterial agent, used in poultry. Enrofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic sold by the Bayer Corporation under the trade name Baytril(r). Enrofloxacin is currently FDA-approved for treatment of individual pets and domestic animals in the United States. In September 2005, the FDA withdrew approval of Baytril for use in water to treat flocks of poultry, as this practice was noted to promote the evolution of fluoroquinolone-resistant strains of the bacterium Campylobacter, a human pathogen. Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin are widely used in the treatment of human disease. Enrofloxacin is a synthetic chemotherapeutic agent from the class of the fluoroquinolone carboxylic acid derivatives. It has antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Its mechanism of action is not thoroughly understood, but it is believed to act by inhibiting bacterial DNA gyrase (a type-II topoisomerase), thereby preventing DNA supercoiling and DNA synthesis. It is a bactericidal agent. The bactericidal activity of enrofloxacin is concentration dependent, with susceptible bacteria cell death occurring within 20-30 minutes of exposure. Enrofloxacin has demonstrated a significant post-antibiotic effect for both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and is active in both stationary and growth phases of bacterial replication. http://www.fda.gov/cvm/Documents/baytrilDDL.pdf is a broken lin
Irbesartan is an angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) used mainly for the treatment of hypertension. It competes with angiotensin II for binding at the AT1 receptor subtype. Unlike ACE inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. The use of ARBs is pending revision due to findings from several clinical trials suggesting that this class of drugs may be associated with a small increased risk of cancer.
A synthetic opioid that is used as the hydrochloride. It is an opioid analgesic that is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. It has actions and uses similar to those of morphine. It also has a depressant action on the cough center and may be given to control intractable cough associated with terminal lung cancer. Methadone is also used as part of the treatment of dependence on opioid drugs, although prolonged use of methadone itself may result in dependence. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1082-3)
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIV-induced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia. [PubChem]
Lidocaine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic and cardiac depressant used as an antiarrhythmia agent. Its actions are more intense and its effects more prolonged than those of procaine but its duration of action is shorter than that of bupivacaine or prilocaine. [PubChem]Lidocaine stabilizes the neuronal membrane by inhibiting the ionic fluxes required for the initiation and conduction of impulses thereby effecting local anesthetic action. Lidocaine alters signal conduction in neurons by blocking the fast voltage gated sodium (Na+) channels in the neuronal cell membrane that are responsible for signal propagation. With sufficient blockage the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron will not depolarize and will thus fail to transmit an action potential. This creates the anaesthetic effect by not merely preventing pain signals from propagating to the brain but by aborting their birth in the first place.
Sulfathiazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug.It is a short-acting sulfa drug. It used to be a common oral and topical antimicrobial until less toxic alternatives were discovered. It is still occasionally used, sometimes in combination with sulfabenzamide and sulfacetamide.
Fosinopril is a phosphinic acid-containing ester prodrug that belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class of medications. It is rapidly hydrolyzed to fosinoprilat, its principle active metabolite. Fosinoprilat inhibits ACE, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Fosinopril may be used to treat mild to moderate hypertension, as an adjunct in the treatment of congestive heart failure, and to slow the rate of progression of renal disease in hypertensive individuals with diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria or overt nephropathy.
norfentanyl is a metabolite of fentanyl. Fentanyl (also known as fentanil, brand names Sublimaze, Actiq, Durogesic, Duragesic, Fentora, Matrifen, Haldid, Onsolis, Instanyl, Abstral, Lazanda and others) is a potent, synthetic narcotic analgesic with a rapid onset and short duration of action. It is a strong agonist at the μ-opioid receptors. Historically it has been used to treat breakthrough pain and is commonly used in pre-procedures as a pain reliever as well as an anesthetic in combination with a benzodiazepine. (Wikipedia)
Valsartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used to treat a variety of cardiac conditions including hypertension, diabetic nephropathy and heart failure. Valsartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Valsartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Phenobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant.Phenobarbital acts on GABAA receptors, increasing synaptic inhibition. This has the effect of elevating seizure threshold and reducing the spread of seizure activity from a seizure focus. Phenobarbital may also inhibit calcium channels, resulting in a decrease in excitatory transmitter release. The sedative-hypnotic effects of phenobarbital are likely the result of its effect on the polysynaptic midbrain reticular formation, which controls CNS arousal.
Ciprofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.The bactericidal action of ciprofloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, strand supercoiling repair, and recombination.
Atazanavir (formerly known as BMS-232632) is an antiretroviral drug of the protease inhibitor (PI) class. Like other antiretrovirals, it is used to treat infection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Atazanavir is distinguished from other PIs in that it can be given once-daily (rather than requiring multiple doses per day) and has lesser effects on the patient's lipid profile (the amounts of cholesterol and other fatty substances in the blood). Like other protease inhibitors, it is used only in combination with other HIV medications. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved atazanavir on June 20, 2003. [Wikipedia]
Clobazam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It has been marketed as an anxiolytic since 1975 and an anticonvulsant since 1984. [Wikipedia]Clobazam binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA-A receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is prolonged as a result.
Candesartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. It is administered orally as the prodrug, candesartan cilexetil, which is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, candesartan, during absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Candesartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Candesartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Aminophenazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a pyrazolone with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties but has risk of agranulocytosis. A breath test with 13C-labeled aminopyrine has been used as a non-invasive measure of cytochrome P-450 metabolic activity in liver function tests. [PubChem]Aminophenazone is metabolized very slowly by normal newborn babies. In older infants, a higher amount of exhaled 13-CO2 is observed.
Tacrolimus (also FK-506 or Fujimycin) is an immunosuppressive drug whose main use is after organ transplant to reduce the activity of the patient's immune system and so the risk of organ rejection. It is also used in a topical preparation in the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis, severe refractory uveitis after bone marrow transplants, and the skin condition vitiligo. It was discovered in 1984 from the fermentation broth of a Japanese soil sample that contained the bacteria Streptomyces tsukubaensis. Tacrolimus is chemically known as a macrolide. It reduces peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity by binding to the immunophilin FKBP-12 (FK506 binding protein) creating a new complex. This FKBP12-FK506 complex interacts with and inhibits calcineurin thus inhibiting both T-lymphocyte signal transduction and IL-2 transcription.
Carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide is a metabolite of carbamazepine. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder, as well as trigeminal neuralgia. (Wikipedia)
Ranitidine (CAS: 66357-35-5) is a non-imidazole blocker of histamine receptors that mediate gastric secretion (H2 receptors). It is used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers (PubChem). Ranitidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). It is currently marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Zantac (Wikipedia).
N-Desmethylvenlafaxine is a metabolite of venlafaxine (brand name: Effexor or Efexor). Venlafaxine is a bicyclic antidepressant and is usually categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), but it has been referred to as a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. It works by blocking the transporter reuptake proteins for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse.
A drug that has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic activities. It is especially effective in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. It also is useful in rheumatoid arthritis and Reiter&#39;s syndrome (investigational indication). Although phenylbutazone is effective in gouty arthritis, risk/benefit considerations indicate that this drug should not be employed for this disease. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p1822)
Gemcitabine is a nucleoside analog used as chemotherapy. It is marketed as Gemzar by Eli Lilly and Company. As with fluorouracil and other analogues of pyrimidines, the drug replaces one of the building blocks of nucleic acids, in this case cytidine, during DNA replication. The process arrests tumor growth, as new nucleosides cannot be attached to the 'faulty' nucleoside, resulting in apoptosis (cellular 'suicide').
Niflumic Acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [PubChem]Niflumic acid is able to inhibit both phospholipase A2 as well as COX-2, thereby acting as an antiinflamatory and pain reduction agent.
Amisulpride (trade name Solian) is an antipsychotic drug sold by Sanofi-Aventis. It is not approved for use in the United States, but is approved for use in Europe and Australia for the treatment of psychoses and schizophrenia. Additionally, it is approved in Italy for the treatment of dysthymia (under the brand name Deniban). Amisulpride is a selective dopamine antagonist.
Valganciclovir hydrochloride (Valcyte, manufactured by Roche) is an antiviral medication used to treat cytomegalovirus infections. As the L-valyl ester of ganciclovir, it is actually a prodrug for ganciclovir. After oral administration, it is rapidly converted to ganciclovir by intestinal and hepatic esterases.
Fenofibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent which reduces both cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. [PubChem]Fenofibrate exerts its therapeutic effects through activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor a (PPARa). This increases lipolysis and elimination of triglyceride-rich particles from plasma by activating lipoprotein lipase and reducing production of apoprotein C-III. The resulting fall in triglycerides produces an alteration in the size and composition of LDL from small, dense particles, to large buoyant particles. These larger particles have a greater affinity for cholesterol receptors and are catabolized rapidly.
Crotamiton is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a scabicidal and antipruritic agent available as a cream or lotion for topical use only. It is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil, having a faint amine-like odor. It is miscible with alcohol and with methanol.Crotamiton is an antiparasitic that is toxic to the scabies mite. Crotamiton also relieves itching by producing what is called a counter-irritation. As crotamiton evaporates from the skin, it produces a cooling effect. This cooling effect helps to divert your body's attention away from the itching.
Salbutamol is a short-acting, selective beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. It is 29 times more selective for beta2 receptors than beta1 receptors giving it higher specificity for pulmonary beta receptors versus beta1-adrenergic receptors located in the heart. Salbutamol is formulated as a racemic mixture of the R- and S-isomers. The R-isomer has 150 times greater affinity for the beta2-receptor than the S-isomer and the S-isomer has been associated with toxicity. This lead to the development of levalbuterol, the single R-isomer of salbutamol. However, the high cost of levalbuterol compared to salbutamol has deterred wide-spread use of this enantiomerically pure version of the drug. Salbutamol is generally used for acute episodes of bronchospasm caused by bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis and other chronic bronchopulmonary disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD). It is also used prophylactically for exercise-induced asthma
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
Imatinib is a drug used to treat certain types of cancer. It is currently marketed by Novartis as Gleevec (USA) or Glivec (Europe/Australia) as its mesylate salt, imatinib mesilate (INN). It is occasionally referred to as CGP57148B or STI571 (especially in older publications). It is used in treating chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) and a number of other malignancies. It is the first member of a new class of agents that act by inhibiting particular tyrosine kinase enzymes, instead of non-specifically inhibiting rapidly dividing cells.
Tiapride is a benzamide derivative with dopamine antagonist actions similar to sulpiride. It has been used as an antipsychotic and in the treatment of various movement disorders and alcoholism.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
Tylosin is used in treatment of cattle, swine and mycoplasmas in poultry Tylosin is a macrolide-class antibiotic used in veterinary medicine. It has a broad spectrum of activity against gram positive organisms and a limited range of gram negative organisms. It is found naturally as a fermentation product of Streptomyces fradiae
Tiapride is a benzamide derivative with dopamine antagonist actions similar to sulpiride. It has been used as an antipsychotic and in the treatment of various movement disorders and alcoholism.
Doxycycline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic tetracycline derivative with similar antimicrobial activity. Animal studies suggest that it may cause less tooth staining than other tetracyclines. It is used in some areas for the treatment of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria (malaria, falciparum). [PubChem]Doxycycline, like minocycline, is lipophilic and can pass through the lipid bilayer of bacteria. Doxycycline reversibly binds to the 30 S ribosomal subunits and possibly the 50S ribosomal subunit(s), blocking the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the mRNA and inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Doxycycline prevents the normal function of the apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum, a malaria causing organism.
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
A nitroimidazole used to treat amebiasis; vaginitis; trichomonas infections; giardiasis; anaerobic bacteria; and treponemal infections. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985, p133), this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen (Merck, 11th ed).
Pantozol; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy; Protium; Protonix; Pantozol; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance; Protium; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Protonix; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy.
Fosinopril is a phosphinic acid-containing ester prodrug that belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class of medications. It is rapidly hydrolyzed to fosinoprilat, its principle active metabolite. Fosinoprilat inhibits ACE, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Fosinopril may be used to treat mild to moderate hypertension, as an adjunct in the treatment of congestive heart failure, and to slow the rate of progression of renal disease in hypertensive individuals with diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria or overt nephropathy.
Metenamine belongs to the family of Aminals. These are organic compounds containing the aminal functional group
Exemestane is an oral steroidal aromatase inhibitor used in the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive (also called hormone-receptor-positive, estrogen-responsive) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It acts as a false substrate for the aromatase enzyme, and is processed to an intermediate that binds irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme causing its inactivation.
Ciprofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.The bactericidal action of ciprofloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, strand supercoiling repair, and recombination.
Fluconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal candidiasis and cryptococcal meningitis in AIDS. [PubChem]Fluconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Fluconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Acamprosate, also known by the brand name Campral&trade;, is a drug used for treating alcohol dependence. Acamprosate is thought to stabilize the chemical balance in the brain that would otherwise be disrupted by alcoholism, possibly by blocking glutaminergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, while gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors are activated. Reports indicate that acamprosate only works with a combination of attending support groups and abstinence from alcohol. Certain serious side effects include allergic reactions, irregular heartbeats, and low or high blood pressure, while less serious side effects include headaches, insomnia, and impotence. Acamprosate should not be taken by people with kidney problems or allergies to the drug.
Telmisartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist (ARB) used in the management of hypertension. Generally, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) such as telmisartan bind to the angiotensin II type 1 (AT1) receptors with high affinity, causing inhibition of the action of angiotensin II on vascular smooth muscle, ultimately leading to a reduction in arterial blood pressure. Recent studies suggest that telmisartan may also have PPAR-gamma agonistic properties that could potentially confer beneficial metabolic effects.
p-Toluenesulfonic acid, also known as tosylate or para-toluene sulfonate, is a member of the class of compounds known as p-methylbenzenesulfonates. p-Methylbenzenesulfonates are benzenesulfonic acids (or derivative thereof) carrying a methyl group at the para- position. p-Toluenesulfonic acid is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). p-Toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA or pTsOH) or tosylic acid (TsOH) is an organic compound with the formula CH3C6H4SO3H. It is a white solid that is soluble in water, alcohols, and other polar organic solvents. The CH3C6H4SO2– group is known as the tosyl group and is often abbreviated as Ts or Tos. Most often, TsOH refers to the monohydrate, TsOH•H2O. It is a white solid that is soluble in water, alcohols, and other polar organic solvents (Wikipedia).
Sarafloxacin is used for control of Campylobacter infections in poultr
Bupivacaine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a widely used local anesthetic agent. [PubChem]Bupivacaine blocks the generation and the conduction of nerve impulses, presumably by increasing the threshold for electrical excitation in the nerve, by slowing the propagation of the nerve impulse, and by reducing the rate of rise of the action potential. Bupivacaine binds to the intracellular portion of sodium channels and blocks sodium influx into nerve cells, which prevents depolarization. In general, the progression of anesthesia is related to the diameter, myelination and conduction velocity of affected nerve fibers. Clinically, the order of loss of nerve function is as follows: (1) pain, (2) temperature, (3) touch, (4) proprioception, and (5) skeletal muscle tone. The analgesic effects of Bupivicaine are thought to potentially be due to its binding to the prostaglandin E2 receptors, subtype EP1 (PGE2EP1), which inhibits the production of prostaglandins, thereby reducing fever, inflammation, and hyperalgesia.
Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety; Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is sold under the brand-names Celexa (U.S., Forest Laboratories, Inc.), Cipramil, Seropram (Europe and Australia) and Ciazil (Australia); A furancarbonitrile that is one of the serotonin uptake inhibitors used as an antidepressant. The drug is also effective in reducing ethanol uptake in alcoholics and is used in depressed patients who also suffer from tardive dyskinesia in preference to tricyclic antidepressants, which aggravate this condition; Citalopram is an antidepressant drug used to treat depression associated with mood disorders. It is also used on occasion in the treatment of body dysmorphic disorder and anxiety. Citalopram belongs to a class of drugs known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Oxybutynin is an anticholinergic medication used to relieve urinary and bladder difficulties, including frequent urination and inability to control urination, by decreasing muscle spasms of the bladder. It competitively antagonizes the M1, M2, and M3 subtypes of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor.
Sulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)Sulfonamides inhibit the enzymatic conversion of pteridine and p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to dihydropteroic acid by competing with PABA for binding to dihydrofolate synthetase, an intermediate of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis. THF is required for the synthesis of purines and dTMP and inhibition of its synthesis inhibits bacterial growth. Pyrimethamine and trimethoprim inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, another step in THF synthesis, and therefore act synergistically with the sulfonamides.
Amisulpride (trade name Solian) is an antipsychotic drug sold by Sanofi-Aventis. It is not approved for use in the United States, but is approved for use in Europe and Australia for the treatment of psychoses and schizophrenia. Additionally, it is approved in Italy for the treatment of dysthymia (under the brand name Deniban). Amisulpride is a selective dopamine antagonist.
Environmental contaminant arising from the degradation of Chlorpyrifos <ht>HHB89-F</ht> and Triclopyr <ht>DLG07-O</ht>.
Amitriptyline hydrochloride is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amitriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amitriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amitriptyline may be used to treat depression, chronic pain (unlabeled use), irritable bowel syndrome (unlabeled use), diabetic neuropathy (unlabeled use), post-traumatic stress disorder (unlabeled use), and for migraine prophylaxis (unlabeled use).
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
Cotinine is an alkaloid found in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Cotinine belongs to the class of organic compounds known as pyrrolidinylpyridines. Pyrrolidinylpyridines are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring. It is also the predominant human metabolite of nicotine (when nicotine is inhaled or absorbed). In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine that is inhaled or absorbed is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine. Cotinine is widely used as a biomarker for exposure to tobacco smoke. Cotinine has an in vivo half-life of approximately 20 hours, and is typically detectable for several days (up to one week) after the use of tobacco. Similar to nicotine, cotinine binds to, activates, and desensitizes neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, though at much lower potency in comparison. It has demonstrated nootropic and antipsychotic-like effects in animal models. Cotinine treatment has also been shown to reduce depression, anxiety, and fear-related behavior as well as memory impairment in animal models of depression, PTSD, and Alzheimer's disease.
Chlorthalidone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzenesulfonamide-phthalimidine that tautomerizes to a benzophenones form. It is considered a thiazide-like diuretic. [PubChem]Chlorthalidone inhibits sodium ion transport across the renal tubular epithelium in the cortical diluting segment of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle. By increasing the delivery of sodium to the distal renal tubule, Chlorthalidone indirectly increases potassium excretion via the sodium-potassium exchange mechanism.
Amitriptyline hydrochloride is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amitriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amitriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amitriptyline may be used to treat depression, chronic pain (unlabeled use), irritable bowel syndrome (unlabeled use), diabetic neuropathy (unlabeled use), post-traumatic stress disorder (unlabeled use), and for migraine prophylaxis (unlabeled use).
Aliskiren is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a renin inhibitor. It was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2007 for the treatment of hypertension.Renin is secreted by the kidney in response to decreases in blood volume and renal perfusion. Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to form the inactive decapeptide angiotensin I (Ang I). Ang I is converted to the active octapeptide angiotensin II (Ang II) by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and non-ACE pathways. Ang II is a powerful vasoconstrictor and leads to the release of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla and prejunctional nerve endings. It also promotes aldosterone secretion and sodium reabsorption. Together, these effects increase blood pressure. Ang II also inhibits renin release, thus providing a negative feedback to the system. This cycle, from renin through angiotensin to aldosterone and its associated negative feedback loop, is known as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Aliskiren is a direct renin inhibitor, decreasing plasma renin activity (PRA) and inhibiting the conversion of angiotensinogen to Ang I. Whether aliskiren affects other RAAS components, e.g., ACE or non-ACE pathways, is not known. All agents that inhibit the RAAS, including renin inhibitors, suppress the negative feedback loop, leading to a compensatory rise in plasma renin concentration. When this rise occurs during treatment with ACE inhibitors and ARBs, the result is increased levels of PRA. During treatment with aliskiren, however, the effect of increased renin levels is blocked, so that PRA, Ang I and Ang II are all reduced, whether aliskiren is used as monotherapy or in combination with other antihypertensive agents. PRA reductions in clinical trials ranged from approximately 50%-80%, were not dose-related and did not correlate with blood pressure reductions. The clinical implications of the differences in effect on PRA are not known.
Acaricide and weed kille
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]
iso-nLc8Cer, also known as Cumidine or 4-(1-Methylethyl)a0ine, is classified as a member of the Cumenes. Cumenes are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety. iso-nLc8Cer is considered to be slightly soluble (in water) and basic
Hydrochlorothiazide is a thiazide diuretic often considered the prototypical member of this class. It reduces the reabsorption of electrolytes from the renal tubules. This results in increased excretion of water and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including edema, hypertension, diabetes insipidus, and hypoparathyroidism. -- Pubchem. Hydrochlorothiazide (Apo-Hydro, Aquazide H, Microzide, Oretic), sometimes abbreviated HCT, HCTZ, or HZT is a popular diuretic drug that acts by inhibiting the kidney's ability to retain water. This reduces the volume of the blood, decreasing peripheral vascular resistance. Chlorothiazide, a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. --Wikipedia.
Industrial biocide. 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one is present in can-end cement
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38)Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Dexamethasone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid. Dexamethasone is a glucocorticoid agonist. It is used for its antiinflammatory or immunosuppressive properties and ability to penetrate the CNS, dexamethasone is used alone to manage cerebral edema and with tobramycin to treat corticosteroid-responsive inflammatory ocular conditions. Dexamethasone can be used in the context of congenital adrenal hyperplasia, to prevent virilisation of a female fetus. Unbound dexamethasone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic glucocorticoid receptors. This complex binds to DNA elements (glucocorticoid response elements) which results in a modification of transcription and, hence, protein synthesis in order to achieve inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of dexamethasone are thought to involve phospholipase A<sub>2</sub> inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Dexamethasone has been shown to exhibit anesthetic, anti-microbial, appetite stimulant, muscle building and sedative functions (PMID 16571981, 19842390, 11563572, 20080405, 2898201). Its potency is about 20-30 times that of hydrocortisone and 4-5 times of prednisone.
Amisulpride (trade name Solian) is an antipsychotic drug sold by Sanofi-Aventis. It is not approved for use in the United States, but is approved for use in Europe and Australia for the treatment of psychoses and schizophrenia. Additionally, it is approved in Italy for the treatment of dysthymia (under the brand name Deniban). Amisulpride is a selective dopamine antagonist.
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. [PubChem]Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
10,11-Dihydroxycarbamazepine, also called carbamazepine diol, is a metabolite of both carbamazepine and oxcarbazepine. Carbamazepine (CBZ) is an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder, as well as trigeminal neuralgia. Oxcarbazepine is an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug, used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy. It is also used to treat anxiety and mood disorders, and benign motor tics. (Wikipedia)
Moclobemide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) selective for isoform A (RIMA) used to treat major depressive disorder.The mechanism of action of moclobemide involves the selective, reversible inhibition of MAO-A. This inhibition leads to a decrease in the metabolism and destruction of monoamines in the neurotransmitters. This results in an increase in the monoamines, relieving depressive symptoms.
Industrial biocide. 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one is present in can-end cement
Pheniramine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the histamine H1 antagonists with little sedative action. It is used in treatment of hay fever, rhinitis, allergic dermatoses, and pruritus. [PubChem]Antihistamines such as pheniramine appear to compete with histamine for histamine H1- receptor sites on effector cells. The antihistamines antagonize those pharmacological effects of histamine which are mediated through activation of H1- receptor sites and thereby reduce the intensity of allergic reactions and tissue injury response involving histamine release. Antihistamines suppress the histamine-induced wheal (swelling) and flare (vasodilation) response by blocking the binding of histamine to its receptors on nerves, vascular smooth muscle, glandular cells, endothelium, and mast cells. They effectively exert competitive antagonism of histamine for H1-receptors.
Fludrocortisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic mineralocorticoid with anti-inflammatory activity. [PubChem]Fludrocortisone binds the mineralocorticoid receptor (aldosterone receptor). This binding (or activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor by fludrocortisone) in turn causes an increase in ion and water transport and thus raises extracellular fluid volume and blood pressure and lowers potassium levels.
Rosuvastatin is an antilipemic agent that competitively inhibits hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. HMG-CoA reducuase catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonic acid, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis. Rosuvastatin belongs to a class of medications called statins and is used to reduce plasma cholesterol levels and prevent cardiovascular disease.
Plant growth regulator. (2-Naphthalenyloxy)acetic acid is used for control of preharvest fruit drop especially on grapes, pineapples, strawberries and tomatoe
Mefenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties. It is an inhibitor of cyclooxygenase. [PubChem]Mefenamic acid binds the prostaglandin synthetase receptors COX-1 and COX-2, inhibiting the action of prostaglandin synthetase. As these receptors have a role as a major mediator of inflammation and/or a role for prostanoid signaling in activity-dependent plasticity, the symptoms of pain are temporarily reduced.
N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is a metabolite of the sulfonamide bacteriostatic antibiotic sulfamethoxazole. Sulfamethoxazole is metabolized via acetylation catalyzed by liver extramitochondrial N-acetyl transferases. Acetylsulfamethoxazole is excreted in urine. Acetylsulfamethoxazole and sulfamethoxazole can be used as a probe for the molecular percentage enrichment of liver extramitochondrial acetyl-CoA. N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole can be used as a reference for measuring sulfamethoxazole impurities and waste determination (PMID: 15307787). It is one of the critical aspects of urine and stone analysis (PMID: 3811034) and its quantitative determination in body fluids could be performed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, a rapid, precise and simple procedure (PMID: 6668314). It is also reported the renal excretion rate of the metabolite N4-acetylsulfamethoxazole is not dependent on the urinary pH (PMID: 670346). N4-Acetylsulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals who have consumed the drug sulfamethoxazole.
Pantozol; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy; Protium; Protonix; Pantozol; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained. Pantoprazole is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 system. Metabolism mainly consists of demethylation by CYP2C19 followed by sulfation. Another metabolic pathway is oxidation by CYP3A4. Pantoprazole metabolites are not thought to have any pharmacological significance; Protium; Pantor; Pantoloc) is a proton pump inhibitor drug used for short-term treatment of erosion and ulceration of the esophagus caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease. Initial treatment is generally of eight weeks' duration, after which another eight week course of treatment may be considered if necessary. It can be used as a maintenance therapy for long term use after initial response is obtained; Protonix; Pantoprazole (brand names Pantopan in Italy.
Fenofibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent which reduces both cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. [PubChem]Fenofibrate exerts its therapeutic effects through activation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor a (PPARa). This increases lipolysis and elimination of triglyceride-rich particles from plasma by activating lipoprotein lipase and reducing production of apoprotein C-III. The resulting fall in triglycerides produces an alteration in the size and composition of LDL from small, dense particles, to large buoyant particles. These larger particles have a greater affinity for cholesterol receptors and are catabolized rapidly.
Losartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. Losartan and its longer acting metabolite, E-3174, lower blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); they compete with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Losartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure.
Cefadroxil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a long-acting, broad-spectrum, water-soluble, cephalexin derivative.Like all beta-lactam antibiotics, cefadroxil binds to specific penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, causing the inhibition of the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Cell lysis is then mediated by bacterial cell wall autolytic enzymes such as autolysins; it is possible that cefadroxil interferes with an autolysin inhibitor.
Doxazosin is a quinazoline-derivative that selectively antagonizes postsynaptic &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors. It may be used to mild to moderate hypertension and in the management of symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-Receptors mediate contraction and hypertrophic growth of smooth muscle cells. Antagonism of these receptors leads to smooth muscle relaxation in the peripheral vasculature and prostate gland.
Aspartame is the name for an artificial, non-carbohydrate sweetener, aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester; i.e., the methyl ester of the dipeptide of the amino acids aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is marketed under a number of trademark names, such as Equal, and Canderel, and is an ingredient of approximately 6,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide. It is commonly used in diet soft drinks, and is often provided as a table condiment. It is also used in some brands of chewable vitamin supplements. In the European Union, it is also known under the E number (additive code) E951. Aspartame is also one of the sugar substitutes used by diabetics. Upon ingestion, aspartame breaks down into several constituent chemicals, including the naturally-occurring essential amino acid phenylalanine which is a health hazard to the few people born with phenylketonuria, a congenital inability to process phenylalanine. Aspartic acid is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Approximately 40% of aspartame (by mass) is broken down into aspartic acid. Because aspartame is metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike aspartic acid-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike blood plasma levels of aspartate. Aspartic acid is in a class of chemicals known as excitotoxins. Abnormally high levels of excitotoxins have been shown in hundreds of animals studies to cause damage to areas of the brain unprotected by the blood-brain barrier and a variety of chronic diseases arising out of this neurotoxicity.
Oxipurinol is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor. Oxipurinol is potentially used for treatment of congestive heart failure. PMID: 15139781.
Zopiclone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a novel hypnotic agent used in the treatment of insomnia. Its mechanism of action is based on modulating benzodiazepine receptors. In addition to zopiclone's benzodiazepine pharmacological properties it also has some barbiturate like properties. Zopiclone exerts its action by binding on the benzodiazepine receptor complex and modulation of the GABA<sub>B</sub>Z receptor chloride channel macromolecular complex. Both zopiclone and benzodiazepines act indiscriminately at the benzodiazepine binding site on &#945;1, &#945;2, &#945;3 and &#945;5 GABA<sub>A</sub> containing receptors as full agonists causing an enhancement of the inhibitory actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic (hypnotic and anxiolytic) and adverse effects of zopiclone.
Salbutamol is a short-acting, selective beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. It is 29 times more selective for beta2 receptors than beta1 receptors giving it higher specificity for pulmonary beta receptors versus beta1-adrenergic receptors located in the heart. Salbutamol is formulated as a racemic mixture of the R- and S-isomers. The R-isomer has 150 times greater affinity for the beta2-receptor than the S-isomer and the S-isomer has been associated with toxicity. This lead to the development of levalbuterol, the single R-isomer of salbutamol. However, the high cost of levalbuterol compared to salbutamol has deterred wide-spread use of this enantiomerically pure version of the drug. Salbutamol is generally used for acute episodes of bronchospasm caused by bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis and other chronic bronchopulmonary disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD). It is also used prophylactically for exercise-induced asthma
Exemestane is an oral steroidal aromatase inhibitor used in the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive (also called hormone-receptor-positive, estrogen-responsive) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It acts as a false substrate for the aromatase enzyme, and is processed to an intermediate that binds irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme causing its inactivation.
Chlordiazepoxide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal. [PubChem]Chlordiazepoxide binds to stereospecific benzodiazepine (BZD) binding sites on GABA (A) receptor complexes at several sites within the central nervous system, including the limbic system and reticular formation. This results in an increased binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the GABA(A) receptor.BZDs, therefore, enhance GABA-mediated chloride influx through GABA receptor channels, causing membrane hyperpolarization. The net neuro-inhibitory effects result in the observed sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant properties.
Zonisamide is a sulfonamide anticonvulsant approved for use as an adjunctive therapy in adults with partial-onset seizures. Zonisamide may be a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor although this is not one of the primary mechanisms of action. Zonisamide may act by blocking repetitive firing of voltage-gated sodium channels leading to a reduction of T-type calcium channel currents, or by binding allosterically to GABA receptors. This latter action may inhibit the uptake of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA while enhancing the uptake of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.
Oxybenzone is an organic compound used in sunscreens. It is a derivative of benzophenone. It forms colorless crystals that are readily soluble in most organic solvents. It is used as an ingredient in sunscreen and other cosmetics because it absorbs UV-A ultraviolet rays.
Used to treat allergic conjunctivitis (itching eyes), olopatadine inhibits the release of histamine from mast cells. It is a relatively selective histamine H1 antagonist that inhibits the in vivo and in vitro type 1 immediate hypersensitivity reaction including inhibition of histamine induced effects on human conjunctival epithelial cells.
Ranitidine (CAS: 66357-35-5) is a non-imidazole blocker of histamine receptors that mediate gastric secretion (H2 receptors). It is used to treat gastrointestinal ulcers (PubChem). Ranitidine is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist that inhibits stomach acid production and is commonly used in the treatment of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). It is currently marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Zantac (Wikipedia).
Zopiclone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a novel hypnotic agent used in the treatment of insomnia. Its mechanism of action is based on modulating benzodiazepine receptors. In addition to zopiclone's benzodiazepine pharmacological properties it also has some barbiturate like properties. Zopiclone exerts its action by binding on the benzodiazepine receptor complex and modulation of the GABA<sub>B</sub>Z receptor chloride channel macromolecular complex. Both zopiclone and benzodiazepines act indiscriminately at the benzodiazepine binding site on &#945;1, &#945;2, &#945;3 and &#945;5 GABA<sub>A</sub> containing receptors as full agonists causing an enhancement of the inhibitory actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic (hypnotic and anxiolytic) and adverse effects of zopiclone.
Pheniramine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the histamine H1 antagonists with little sedative action. It is used in treatment of hay fever, rhinitis, allergic dermatoses, and pruritus. [PubChem]Antihistamines such as pheniramine appear to compete with histamine for histamine H1- receptor sites on effector cells. The antihistamines antagonize those pharmacological effects of histamine which are mediated through activation of H1- receptor sites and thereby reduce the intensity of allergic reactions and tissue injury response involving histamine release. Antihistamines suppress the histamine-induced wheal (swelling) and flare (vasodilation) response by blocking the binding of histamine to its receptors on nerves, vascular smooth muscle, glandular cells, endothelium, and mast cells. They effectively exert competitive antagonism of histamine for H1-receptors.
5-Hydroxydiclofenac (5-OH-DCF) is a metabolite of Diclofenac. Diclofenac (cf. INN with trade names) is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions. (Wikipedia)
Aminophenazone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a pyrazolone with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antipyretic properties but has risk of agranulocytosis. A breath test with 13C-labeled aminopyrine has been used as a non-invasive measure of cytochrome P-450 metabolic activity in liver function tests. [PubChem]Aminophenazone is metabolized very slowly by normal newborn babies. In older infants, a higher amount of exhaled 13-CO2 is observed.
Norfloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase. [PubChem]The bactericidal action of Norfloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, and recombination. Norfloxacin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterias. The fluorine atom at the 6 position increases potency against gram-negative organisms, and the piperazine moiety at the 7 position is responsible for anti-pseudomonal activity
4'-Hydroxydiclofenac is only found in individuals that have used or taken Diclofenac. 4'-Hydroxydiclofenac is a metabolite of Diclofenac. 4'-hydroxydiclofenac belongs to the family of Phenylacetic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenylacetic acid moiety, which consists of a phenyl group substituted at the second position by an acetic acid.
An antihelminthic drug that has been tried experimentally in rheumatic disorders where it apparently restores the immune response by increasing macrophage chemotaxis and T-lymphocyte function. Paradoxically, this immune enhancement appears to be beneficial in rheumatoid arthritis where dermatitis, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia, and nausea and vomiting have been reported as side effects. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p435-6)
An antitubercular agent that inhibits the transfer of mycolic acids into the cell wall of the tubercle bacillus. It may also inhibit the synthesis of spermidine in mycobacteria. The action is usually bactericidal, and the drug can penetrate human cell membranes to exert its lethal effect. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p863)
Heptenophos is an Agricultural and veterinary insecticide. Heptenophos is used for treatment of ectoparasites in cattle, pigs, sheep and domestic pets. Also for control of aphids in glasshouse crop
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes (From Stedman, 26th ed). Linoleic acid is found to be associated with isovaleric acidemia, which is an inborn error of metabolism.
Lansoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor similar to omeprazole which prevents the stomach from producing acid. Lansoprazole's plasma elimination half-life is not proportional to the duration of the drug's effects (i.e. gastric acid suppression). The plasma elimination half-life is 1.5 hours or less, and the effects of the drug last for over 24 hours after it has been given for 5 days or more.
Tramadol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic proposed for moderate to severe pain. It may be habituating (PubChem). Tramadol and its O-desmethyl metabolite (M1) are selective, weak OP3-receptor agonists. Opiate receptors are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as both positive and negative regulators of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP is located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. The analgesic properties of tramadol can be attributed to norepinephrine and serotonin reuptake blockade in the CNS, which inhibits pain transmission in the spinal cord. The (+) enantiomer has a higher affinity for the OP3 receptor and preferentially inhibits serotonin uptake and enhances serotonin release. The (-) enantiomer preferentially inhibits norepinephrine reuptake by stimulating alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors.
Nafcillin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a semi-synthetic antibiotic related to penicillin. [PubChem]Penicillinase-resistant penicillins exert a bactericidal action against penicillin-susceptible microorganisms during the state of active multiplication. All penicillins inhibit the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
Lorazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine used as an anti-anxiety agent with few side effects. It also has hypnotic, anticonvulsant, and considerable sedative properties and has been proposed as a preanesthetic agent. [PubChem]Lorazepam binds to an allosteric site on GABA-A receptors, which are pentameric ionotropic receptors in the CNS. Binding potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which upon binding opens the chloride channel in the receptor, allowing chloride influx and causing hyperpolerization of the neuron.
1,1-Dimethylbiguanide, commonly known as metformin, is a member of the class of guanidines that is biguanide the carrying two methyl substituents at position 1. It has a role as a hypoglycemic agent, a xenobiotic and an environmental contaminant. It derives from a biguanide. It is a conjugate base of a metformin(1+). Metformin is a biguanide hypoglycemic agent used in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus not responding to dietary modification. Metformin improves glycemic control by improving insulin sensitivity and decreasing intestinal absorption of glucose. Metformin is the most popular anti-diabetic drug in the United States and one of the most prescribed drugs in the country overall, with nearly 35 million prescriptions filled in 2006 for generic metformin alone. It is also used in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome. It is not associated with weight gain and is taken by mouth. It is sometimes used as an off-label augment to attenuate the risk of weight gain in people who take antipsychotics as well as phenelzine.
Norclozapine is the major metabolite of Clozapine. Clozapine is an atypical antipsychotic medication used in the treatment of schizophrenia, and is also sometimes used off-label for the treatment of bipolar disorder. Clozapine is extensively metabolized in the liver, via the cytochrome P450 system, to polar metabolites suitable for elimination in the urine and feces. The major metabolite, norclozapine (desmethyl-clozapine), is pharmacologically active. (Wikipedia)
Amisulpride (trade name Solian) is an antipsychotic drug sold by Sanofi-Aventis. It is not approved for use in the United States, but is approved for use in Europe and Australia for the treatment of psychoses and schizophrenia. Additionally, it is approved in Italy for the treatment of dysthymia (under the brand name Deniban). Amisulpride is a selective dopamine antagonist.
A pyrimidine inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase, it is an antibacterial related to pyrimethamine. The interference with folic acid metabolism may cause a depression of hematopoiesis. It is potentiated by sulfonamides and the trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination is the form most often used. It is sometimes used alone as an antimalarial. Trimethoprim resistance has been reported. [PubChem]
Dicloxacillin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the penicillins which is resistant to penicillinase. [PubChem]Dicloxacillin exerts a bactericidal action against penicillin-susceptible microorganisms during the state of active multiplication. All penicillins inhibit the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall. By binding to specific penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall, dicloxacillin inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Cell lysis is then mediated by bacterial cell wall autolytic enzymes such as autolysins; it is possible that dicloxacillin interferes with an autolysin inhibitor.
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
Penciclovir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a guanine analogue antiviral drug used for the treatment of various herpesvirus infections. It is a nucleoside analogue which exhibits low toxicity and good selectivity. [Wikipedia]Penciclovir has <i>in vitro</i> activity against herpes simplex virus types 1 (HSV-1) and 2 (HSV-2). In cells infected with HSV-1 or HSV-2, viral thymidine kinase phosphorylates penciclovir to a monophosphate form. The monophosphate form of the drug is then converted to penciclovir triphosphate by cellular kinases. The intracellular triphosphate of penciclovir is retained <i>in vitro</i> inside HSV-infected cells for 10-20 hours, compared with 0.7-1 hour for acyclovir. <i>in vitro</i> studies show that penciclovir triphosphate selectively inhibits viral DNA polymerase by competing with deoxyguanosine triphosphate. Inhibition of DNA synthesis of virus-infected cells inhibits viral replication. In cells not infected with HSV, DNA synthesis is unaltered. Resistant mutants of HSV can occur from qualitative changes in viral thymidine kinase or DNA polymerase. The most commonly encountered acyclovir-resistant mutants that are deficient in viral thymidine kinase are also resistant to penciclovir.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Acaricide and weed kille
An amphetamine derivative that inhibits uptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters. It is a hallucinogen. It is less toxic than its methylated derivative but in sufficient doses may still destroy serotonergic neurons and has been used for that purpose experimentally. [PubChem]; In 1970, the Controlled Substances Act was enacted in the United States, placing MDA into Schedule I. It is similarly controlled in other nations. In Canada MDA is a Schedule III drug. Internationally, MDA is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Many similar unscheduled MDxx chemicals can be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act. MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), also known as tenamfetamine (INN), is a psychedelic and entactogenic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is mainly used as a recreational drug, an entheogen, and a tool in use to supplement various types of practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, and as an agent in psychedelic psychotherapy. It was first synthesized by G. Mannish and W. Jacobson in 1910. There are about 20 different synthetic routes described in the literature for its preparation.
norsertraline is a metabolite of sertraline. Sertraline hydrochloride (trademark names Zoloft and Lustral) is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It was introduced to the market by Pfizer in 1991. Sertraline is primarily used to treat major depression in adult outpatients as well as obsessive–compulsive, panic, and social anxiety disorders in both adults and children. In 2007, it was the most prescribed antidepressant on the U.S. retail market, with 29,652,000 prescriptions. (Wikipedia)
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
Methsuximide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anticonvulsant medication. It is sold by Pfizer under the name Petinutin. [Wikipedia]Binds to T-type voltage sensitive calcium channels. Voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCC) mediate the entry of calcium ions into excitable cells and are also involved in a variety of calcium-dependent processes, including muscle contraction, hormone or neurotransmitter release, gene expression, cell motility, cell division and cell death. The isoform alpha-1G gives rise to T-type calcium currents. T-type calcium channels belong to the "low-voltage activated (LVA)" group and are strongly blocked by mibefradil. A particularity of this type of channels is an opening at quite negative potentials and a voltage-dependent inactivation. T-type channels serve pacemaking functions in both central neurons and cardiac nodal cells and support calcium signaling in secretory cells and vascular smooth muscle. They may also be involved in the modulation of firing patterns of neurons which is important for information processing as well as in cell growth processes.
Ketoprofen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a propionic acid derivative and is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with analgesic and antipyretic properties. The anti-inflammatory effects of ketoprofen are believed to be due to inhibition cylooxygenase-2 (COX-2), an enzyme involved in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. This results in decreased levels of prostaglandins that mediate pain, fever and inflammation. Ketoprofen is a non-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitor and inhibition of COX-1 is thought to confer some of its side effects, such as GI upset and ulceration. Ketoprofen is thought to have anti-bradykinin activity, as well as lysosomal membrane-stabilizing action. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation.
p-Toluenesulfonic acid, also known as tosylate or para-toluene sulfonate, is a member of the class of compounds known as p-methylbenzenesulfonates. p-Methylbenzenesulfonates are benzenesulfonic acids (or derivative thereof) carrying a methyl group at the para- position. p-Toluenesulfonic acid is slightly soluble (in water) and an extremely strong acidic compound (based on its pKa). p-Toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA or pTsOH) or tosylic acid (TsOH) is an organic compound with the formula CH3C6H4SO3H. It is a white solid that is soluble in water, alcohols, and other polar organic solvents. The CH3C6H4SO2– group is known as the tosyl group and is often abbreviated as Ts or Tos. Most often, TsOH refers to the monohydrate, TsOH•H2O. It is a white solid that is soluble in water, alcohols, and other polar organic solvents (Wikipedia).
Sitagliptin is a new oral hypoglycemic (anti-diabetic drug) of the new dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor class of drugs. This enzyme-inhibiting drug is to be used either alone or in combination with metformin or a thiazolidinedione for control of type 2 diabetes mellitus. The drug works to competitively inhibit a protein/enzyme, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4), that results in an increased amount of active incretins (GLP-1 and GIP), reduced amount of release of glucagon (diminishes its release) and increased release of insulin.
Systemic agricultural fungicid
A drug that has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic activities. It is especially effective in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. It also is useful in rheumatoid arthritis and Reiter&#39;s syndrome (investigational indication). Although phenylbutazone is effective in gouty arthritis, risk/benefit considerations indicate that this drug should not be employed for this disease. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p1822)
Lansoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor similar to omeprazole which prevents the stomach from producing acid. Lansoprazole's plasma elimination half-life is not proportional to the duration of the drug's effects (i.e. gastric acid suppression). The plasma elimination half-life is 1.5 hours or less, and the effects of the drug last for over 24 hours after it has been given for 5 days or more.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
Rosuvastatin is an antilipemic agent that competitively inhibits hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. HMG-CoA reducuase catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonic acid, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis. Rosuvastatin belongs to a class of medications called statins and is used to reduce plasma cholesterol levels and prevent cardiovascular disease.
The excellent tolerability of therapeutic doses of paracetamol (acetaminophen) is a major factor in the very wide use of the drug. The major problem in the use of paracetamol is its hepatotoxicity after an overdose. Hepatotoxicity has also been reported after therapeutic doses, but critical analysis indicates that most patients with alleged toxicity from therapeutic doses have taken overdoses. Importantly, prospective studies indicate that therapeutic doses of paracetamol are an unlikely cause of hepatotoxicity in patients who ingest moderate to large amounts of alcohol (PMID: 15733027). Single doses of paracetamol are effective analgesics for acute postoperative pain and give rise to few adverse effects (PMID: 14974073). Acetaminophen (AAP) overdose and the resulting hepatotoxicity is an important clinical problem. In addition, AAP is widely used as a prototype hepatotoxin to study mechanisms of chemical-induced cell injury and to test the hepatoprotective potential of new drugs and herbal medicines. Because of its importance, the mechanisms of AAP-induced liver cell injury have been extensively investigated and controversially discussed for many years (PMID: 16863451).
N,O-Didesmethylvenlafaxine is a metabolite of venlafaxine (brand name: Effexor or Efexor). Venlafaxine is a bicyclic antidepressant and is usually categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), but it has been referred to as a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. It works by blocking the transporter reuptake proteins for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse.
Candesartan is an angiotensin-receptor blocker (ARB) that may be used alone or with other agents to treat hypertension. It is administered orally as the prodrug, candesartan cilexetil, which is rapidly converted to its active metabolite, candesartan, during absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. Candesartan lowers blood pressure by antagonizing the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS); it competes with angiotensin II for binding to the type-1 angiotensin II receptor (AT1) subtype and prevents the blood pressure increasing effects of angiotensin II. Unlike angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, ARBs do not have the adverse effect of dry cough. Candesartan may be used to treat hypertension, isolated systolic hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy and diabetic nephropathy. It may also be used as an alternative agent for the treatment of heart failure, systolic dysfunction, myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease.
Cyclamic acid is an artificial sweetening agent, usually employed as Na or Ca salt (cyclamate). Use suspended in some countries, including USA, because of possible weak carcinogenic activity (disputed). Cyclamic acid is a permitted in EU at levels of 250-1600 ppm in food products.Cyclamic acid is a compound with formula C6H11NHSO2OH
Epinephrine is a catecholamine, a sympathomimetic monoamine derived from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. It is the active sympathomimetic hormone secreted from the adrenal medulla in most species. It stimulates both the alpha- and beta- adrenergic systems, causes systemic vasoconstriction and gastrointestinal relaxation, stimulates the heart, and dilates bronchi and cerebral vessels. It is used in asthma and cardiac failure and to delay absorption of local anesthetics. Epinephrine also constricts arterioles in the skin and gut while dilating arterioles in leg muscles. It elevates the blood sugar level by increasing hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose in the liver, and at the same time begins the breakdown of lipids in adipocytes. Epinephrine has a suppressive effect on the immune system.
Mianserin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a tetracyclic compound with antidepressant effects. Mianserin was previously available internationally, however in most markets it has been phased out in favor of Mirtazapine.Mianserin's mechanism of therapeutic action is not well understood, although it apparently blocks alpha-adrenergic, histamine H1, and some types of serotonin receptors.
Niflumic Acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. [PubChem]Niflumic acid is able to inhibit both phospholipase A2 as well as COX-2, thereby acting as an antiinflamatory and pain reduction agent.
Potential high-intensity sweetener, sweetness variously stated to be 40 x sucrose and 7000-13000 x sucrose Neotame is an artificial sweetener made by NutraSweet that is between 7,000 and 13,000 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar). In the European Union it is known by the E number E961. Neotame is moderately heat stable and extremely potent. Neotame is rapidly metabolized, completely eliminated, and does not accumulate in the body
Levetiracetam is an anticonvulsant medication used to treat epilepsy. Levetiracetam may selectively prevent hypersynchronization of epileptiform burst firing and propagation of seizure activity. Levetiracetam binds to the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A, which is thought to be involved in the regulation of vesicle exocytosis. Although the molecular significance of levetiracetam binding to synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is not understood, levetiracetam and related analogs showed a rank order of affinity for SV2A which correlated with the potency of their antiseizure activity in audiogenic seizure-prone mice.
An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake. [PubChem]
Alfuzosin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an alpha-adrenergic blocker used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). It works by relaxing the muscles in the prostate and bladder neck, making it easier to urinate. [Wikipedia]Alfuzosin is a non-subtype specific alpha(1)-adrenergic blocking agent that exhibits selectivity for alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors in the lower urinary tract. Inhibition of these adrenoreceptors leads to the relaxation of smooth muscle in the bladder neck and prostate, resulting in the improvement in urine flow and a reduction in symptoms in benign prostate hyperplasia. Alfuzosin also inhibits the vasoconstrictor effect of circulating and locally released catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine), resulting in peripheral vasodilation.
Bezafibrate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antilipemic agent that lowers cholesterol and triglycerides. It decreases low density lipoproteins and increases high density lipoproteins. [PubChem]Like the other fibrates, bezafibrate is an agonist of PPAR&alpha;; some studies suggest it may have some activity on PPAR&gamma; and PPAR&delta; as well.
Imidacloprid is an insecticide Imidacloprid is a neonicotinoid, which is a class of neuro-active insecticides modeled after nicotine. Imidacloprid is a patented chemical, Imidacloprid is manufactured by Bayer Cropscience (part of Bayer AG) and sold under trade names Kohinor, Admire, Advantage, Gaucho, Merit, Confidor, Hachikusan, Premise, Prothor, and Winner. It is marketed as pest control, seed treatment, an insecticide spray, termite control, flea control, and a systemic insecticide.
Doxycycline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic tetracycline derivative with similar antimicrobial activity. Animal studies suggest that it may cause less tooth staining than other tetracyclines. It is used in some areas for the treatment of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria (malaria, falciparum). [PubChem]Doxycycline, like minocycline, is lipophilic and can pass through the lipid bilayer of bacteria. Doxycycline reversibly binds to the 30 S ribosomal subunits and possibly the 50S ribosomal subunit(s), blocking the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the mRNA and inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis. Doxycycline prevents the normal function of the apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum, a malaria causing organism.
Bisoprolol is a cardioselective &beta;1-adrenergic blocking agent used for secondary prevention of myocardial infarction (MI), heart failure, angina pectoris and mild to moderate hypertension. Bisoprolol is structurally similar to metoprolol, acebutolol and atenolol in that it has two substituents in the <i>para</i> position of the benzene ring. The &beta;1-selectivity of these agents is thought to be due in part to the large substituents in the <i>para</i> position. At lower doses (less than 20 mg daily), bisoprolol selectively blocks cardiac &beta;1-adrenergic receptors with little activity against &beta;2-adrenergic receptors of the lungs and vascular smooth muscle. Receptor selectivity decreases with daily doses of 20 mg or greater. Unlike propranolol and pindolol, bisoprolol does not exhibit membrane-stabilizing or sympathomimetic activity. Bisoprolol possesses a single chiral centre and is administered as a racemic mixture. Only <i>l</i>-bisoprolol exhibits significant &beta;-blocking activity.
Valganciclovir hydrochloride (Valcyte, manufactured by Roche) is an antiviral medication used to treat cytomegalovirus infections. As the L-valyl ester of ganciclovir, it is actually a prodrug for ganciclovir. After oral administration, it is rapidly converted to ganciclovir by intestinal and hepatic esterases.
Lansoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor similar to omeprazole which prevents the stomach from producing acid. Lansoprazole's plasma elimination half-life is not proportional to the duration of the drug's effects (i.e. gastric acid suppression). The plasma elimination half-life is 1.5 hours or less, and the effects of the drug last for over 24 hours after it has been given for 5 days or more.
3-phenoxybenzoic acid belongs to the family of Benzoic Acid and Derivatives. These are organic compounds containing a carboxylic acid substituent attached to a benzene ring.
Rimantadine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an RNA synthesis inhibitor that is used as an antiviral agent in the prophylaxis and treatment of influenza. [PubChem]The mechanism of action of rimantadine is not fully understood. Rimantadine appears to exert its inhibitory effect early in the viral replicative cycle, possibly inhibiting the uncoating of the virus. Genetic studies suggest that a virus protein specified by the virion M2 gene plays an important role in the susceptibility of influenza A virus to inhibition by rimantadine.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Methylprednisolone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a prednisolone derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action. [PubChem]Unbound glucocorticoids cross cell membranes and bind with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors, modifying transcription and protein synthesis. By this mechanism, glucocorticoids can inhibit leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interfere with mediators of inflammatory response, and suppress humoral immune responses. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
An amphetamine derivative that inhibits uptake of catecholamine neurotransmitters. It is a hallucinogen. It is less toxic than its methylated derivative but in sufficient doses may still destroy serotonergic neurons and has been used for that purpose experimentally. [PubChem]; In 1970, the Controlled Substances Act was enacted in the United States, placing MDA into Schedule I. It is similarly controlled in other nations. In Canada MDA is a Schedule III drug. Internationally, MDA is a Schedule I drug under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Many similar unscheduled MDxx chemicals can be prosecuted under the Federal Analog Act. MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine), also known as tenamfetamine (INN), is a psychedelic and entactogenic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is mainly used as a recreational drug, an entheogen, and a tool in use to supplement various types of practices for transcendence, including in meditation, psychonautics, and as an agent in psychedelic psychotherapy. It was first synthesized by G. Mannish and W. Jacobson in 1910. There are about 20 different synthetic routes described in the literature for its preparation.
Roxithromycin is a semi-synthetic macrolide antibiotic. It is very similar in composition, chemical structure and mechanism of action to erythromycin, azithromycin, or clarithromycin. Roxithromycin prevents bacteria from growing, by interfering with their protein synthesis. Roxithromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, and thus inhibits the translocation of peptides. Roxithromycin has similar antimicrobial spectrum as erythromycin, but is more effective against certain gram-negative bacteria, particularly Legionella pneumophila. It can treat respiratory tract, urinary and soft tissue infections.
para-Trifluoromethylphenol is only found in individuals that have used or taken Fluoxetine. para-Trifluoromethylphenol is a metabolite of Fluoxetine. Para-trifluoromethylphenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
Bicalutamide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.Bicalutamide competes with androgen for the binding of androgen receptors, consequently blocking the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin which stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue.
Tylosin is used in treatment of cattle, swine and mycoplasmas in poultry Tylosin is a macrolide-class antibiotic used in veterinary medicine. It has a broad spectrum of activity against gram positive organisms and a limited range of gram negative organisms. It is found naturally as a fermentation product of Streptomyces fradiae
An alkaloid found in the roots of Rauwolfia serpentina and R. vomitoria. Reserpine inhibits the uptake of norepinephrine into storage vesicles resulting in depletion of catecholamines and serotonin from central and peripheral axon terminals. It has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic as well as a research tool, but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. [PubChem]
Emtricitabine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection in adults. Emtricitabine works by inhibiting reverse transcriptase (RT), an enzyme that allows the virus to multiply by copying HIV RNA into new viral DNA. The drug competes with the reverse transcriptase's natural substrate deoxycytidine 5'-triphosphate and also becomes incorporated into viral DNA. This is a result of emtricitabine being a synthetic nucleoside analogue of cytidine. It is phosphorylated by cellular enzymes to form emtricitabine 5'-triphosphate which competes with the natural substrate deoxycytidine 5'-triphosphate and becomes incorporated into nascent viral DNA, resulting in early chain termination. By inhibiting HIV-1 reverse transcriptase, emtricitabine can help to lower the amount of HIV (viral load) in a patient's body and can indirectly increase the number of immune system cells (T cells or CD4+ T-cells). Both of these changes are associated with healthier immune systems and a decreased likelihood of serious illness. Emtricitabine is always used in conjunction with other HIV medicine to treat people with HIV infection.
Acaricide and weed kille
Tylosin is used in treatment of cattle, swine and mycoplasmas in poultry Tylosin is a macrolide-class antibiotic used in veterinary medicine. It has a broad spectrum of activity against gram positive organisms and a limited range of gram negative organisms. It is found naturally as a fermentation product of Streptomyces fradiae
Sulfadiazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the short-acting sulfonamides used in combination with pyrimethamine to treat toxoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and in newborns with congenital infections. [PubChem]Sulfadiazine is a competitive inhibitor of the bacterial enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. This enzyme is needed for the proper processing of para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) which is essential for folic acid synthesis. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Benzothiazole, also known as BT or benzosulfonazole, belongs to the class of organic compounds known as benzothiazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom). This ring is a potential component in nonlinear optics (NLO). The nine atoms of the bicycle and the attached substituents are coplanar. Although the parent compound, benzothiazole is not widely used, many of its derivatives are found in commercial products or in nature. Benzothiazole is a coffee, cooked, and gasoline tasting compound. benzothiazole is found, on average, in the highest concentration in safflowers. benzothiazole has also been detected, but not quantified, in several different foods, such as common persimmons, fruits, guava, potato, and tea. This could make benzothiazole a potential biomarker for the consumption of these foods. Firefly luciferin can be considered a derivative of benzothiazole. The compound is used also used as an insecticide and food flavoring agent. Some drugs contain this group, examples being riluzole and pramipexole. It is colorless, slightly viscous liquid. It is a thermally stable electron-withdrawing moiety with numerous applications in dyes such as thioflavin. Benzothiazole is an aromatic heterocyclic compound with the chemical formula C7H5NS.
Acaricide and weed kille
Ofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic fluoroquinolone (fluoroquinolones) antibacterial agent that inhibits the supercoiling activity of bacterial DNA gyrase, halting DNA replication. [PubChem]Ofloxacin acts on DNA gyrase and toposiomerase IV, enzymes which, like human topoisomerase, prevents the excessive supercoiling of DNA during replication or transcription. By inhibiting their function, the drug thereby inhibits normal cell division.
Olanzapine was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression. It has also been established in treating depression off-label because of its mood-stabilizing properties and its ability to increase the efficacy of antidepressants. Olanzapine is manufactured and marketed by the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company. It is available as a pill that comes in the strengths of 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 7.5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg and as as Zydis orally disintegrating tablets in the strengths of 5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg. It is also available as a rapid-acting intramuscular injection for short term acute use. Olanzapine (oh-LAN-za-peen, sold as Zyprexa, Zydis, or in combination with fluoxetine, as Symbyax) was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression.
N,O-Didesmethylvenlafaxine is a metabolite of venlafaxine (brand name: Effexor or Efexor). Venlafaxine is a bicyclic antidepressant and is usually categorized as a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), but it has been referred to as a serotonin-norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor. It works by blocking the transporter reuptake proteins for key neurotransmitters affecting mood, thereby leaving more active neurotransmitters in the synapse.
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. It is used in the treatment of severe anxiety disorders, as a hypnotic in the short-term management of insomnia, as a sedative and premedicant, as an anticonvulsant, and in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p589).
Meclofenamic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent with antipyretic and antigranulation activities. It also inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis. [PubChem]The mode of action, like that of other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents, is not known. Therapeutic action does not result from pituitary-adrenal stimulation. In animal studies, meclofenamic acid was found to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and to compete for binding at the prostaglandin receptor site. In vitro meclofenamic acid was found to be an inhibitor of human leukocyte 5-lipoxygenase activity. These properties may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory action of meclofenamic acid. There is no evidence that meclofenamic acid alters the course of the underlying disease.
Clindamycin is a semisynthetic lincosamide antibiotic that has largely replaced lincomycin due to an improved side effect profile. Clindamycin inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits. It may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
Orphenadrine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a muscarinic antagonist used to treat drug-induced parkinsonism and to relieve pain from muscle spasm. [PubChem]Orphenadrine binds and inhibits both histamine H1 receptors and NMDA receptors. It restores the motor disturbances induced by neuroleptics, in particular the hyperkinesia. The dopamine deficiency in the striatum increases the stimulating effects of the cholinergic system. This stimulation is counteracted by the anticholinergic effect of orphenadrine. It may have a relaxing effect on skeletal muscle spasms and it has a mood elevating effect.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; Atorvastatin is a member of the drug class known as statins, used for lowering cholesterol and thereby reducing cardiovascular disease. Atorvastatin inhibits a rate-determining enzyme located in hepatic tissue used in cholesterol synthesis, which lowers the amount of cholesterol produced. This also has the effect of lowering the total amount of LDL cholesterol; As with other statins, atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase. Unlike most others, however, it is a completely synthetic compound. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the reduction of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) to mevalonate, which is the rate-limiting step in hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis. Inhibition of the enzyme decreases de novo cholesterol synthesis, increasing expression of low-density lipoprotein receptors (LDL receptors) on hepatocytes. This increases the LDL uptake by the hepatocytes, decreasing the amount of LDL in the blood.
Etodolac is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic properties. Its therapeutic effects are due to its ability to inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. It is indicated for relief of signs and symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Similar to other NSAIDs, the anti-inflammatory effects of etodolac result from inhibition of the enzyme cycooxygenase (COX). This decreases the synthesis of peripheral prostaglandins involved in mediating inflammation. Etodolac binds to the upper portion of the COX enzyme active site and prevents its substrate, arachidonic acid, from entering the active site. Etodolac was previously thought to be a non-selective COX inhibitor, but it is now known to be 5 â€“ 50 times more selective for COX-2 than COX-1. Antipyresis may occur by central action on the hypothalamus, resulting in peripheral dilation, increased cutaneous blood flow, and subsequent heat loss.
Eprosartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It acts on the renin-angiotensin system in two ways to decrease total peripheral resistance. First, it blocks the binding of angiotensin II to AT1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle, causing vascular dilatation. Second, it inhibits sympathetic norepinephrine production, further reducing blood pressure.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol. These decreases occur primarily in the VLDL fraction and less frequently in the LDL fraction. Gemfibrozil increases HDL subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 as well as apolipoproteins A-I and A-II. Its mechanism of action has not been definitely established. [PubChem]
Eprosartan is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist used for the treatment of high blood pressure. It acts on the renin-angiotensin system in two ways to decrease total peripheral resistance. First, it blocks the binding of angiotensin II to AT1 receptors in vascular smooth muscle, causing vascular dilatation. Second, it inhibits sympathetic norepinephrine production, further reducing blood pressure.
A short-acting hypnotic-sedative drug with anxiolytic and amnestic properties. It is used in dentistry, cardiac surgery, endoscopic procedures, as preanesthetic medication, and as an adjunct to local anesthesia. The short duration and cardiorespiratory stability makes it useful in poor-risk, elderly, and cardiac patients. It is water-soluble at pH less than 4 and lipid-soluble at physiological pH. [PubChem] Midazolam is a schedule IV drug in the United States.
Cyclamic acid is an artificial sweetening agent, usually employed as Na or Ca salt (cyclamate). Use suspended in some countries, including USA, because of possible weak carcinogenic activity (disputed). Cyclamic acid is a permitted in EU at levels of 250-1600 ppm in food products.Cyclamic acid is a compound with formula C6H11NHSO2OH
A butyrophenone with general properties similar to those of haloperidol. It is used in conjunction with an opioid analgesic such as fentanyl to maintain the patient in a calm state of neuroleptanalgesia with indifference to surroundings but still able to cooperate with the surgeon. It is also used as a premedicant, as an antiemetic, and for the control of agitation in acute psychoses. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p593)
Rosuvastatin is an antilipemic agent that competitively inhibits hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. HMG-CoA reducuase catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonic acid, the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis. Rosuvastatin belongs to a class of medications called statins and is used to reduce plasma cholesterol levels and prevent cardiovascular disease.
Iohexol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an effective non-ionic, water-soluble contrast agent which is used in myelography, arthrography, nephroangiography, arteriography, and other radiographic procedures. Its low systemic toxicity is the combined result of low chemotoxicity and low osmolality. [PubChem]Organic iodine compounds block x-rays as they pass through the body, thereby allowing body structures containing iodine to be delineated in contrast to those structures that do not contain iodine. The degree of opacity produced by these compounds is directly proportional to the total amount (concentration and volume) of the iodinated contrast agent in the path of the x-rays. After intrathecal administration into the subarachnoid space, diffusion of iohexol in the CSF allows the visualization of the subarachnoid spaces of the head and spinal canal. After intravascular administration, iohexol makes opaque those vessels in its path of flow, allowing visualization of the internal structures until significant hemodilution occurs.
Meclizine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a histamine H1 antagonist used in the treatment of motion sickness, vertigo, and nausea during pregnancy and radiation sickness. [PubChem]Along with its actions as an antagonist at H<sub>1</sub>-receptors, meclizine also possesses anticholinergic, central nervous system depressant, and local anesthetic effects. Meclizine depresses labyrinth excitability and vestibular stimulation and may affect the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone.
Sulfamethoxazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)Sulfonamides inhibit the enzymatic conversion of pteridine and p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) to dihydropteroic acid by competing with PABA for binding to dihydrofolate synthetase, an intermediate of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF) synthesis. THF is required for the synthesis of purines and dTMP and inhibition of its synthesis inhibits bacterial growth. Pyrimethamine and trimethoprim inhibit dihydrofolate reductase, another step in THF synthesis, and therefore act synergistically with the sulfonamides.
Nilotinib, also known as AMN107, is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor under investigation as a possible treatment for chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). In June 2006, a Phase I clinical trial found nilotinib has a relatively favorable safety profile and shows activity in cases of CML resistant to treatment with imatinib (Gleevec&reg;), another tyrosine kinase inhibitor currently used as a first-line treatment. [Wikipedia]
Dichlorvos is used as a household and public health fumigant, for crop protection and as an anthelmintic in animal feeds.Dichlorvos or 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate (DDVP) is a highly volatile organophosphate, widely used as a insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored product from insects. It is effective against mushroom flies, aphids, spider mites, caterpillars, thrips, and whiteflies in greenhouse, outdoor fruit, and vegetable crops. (Wikipedia
A benzodiazepine with pharmacologic actions similar to those of diazepam that can cause anterograde amnesia. Some reports indicate that it is used as a date rape drug and suggest that it may precipitate violent behavior. The United States Government has banned the importation of this drug. [PubChem]
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, imipenem, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4. [PubChem]