Indomethacin is a non-steroidal antiinflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Its pharmacological effect is thought to be mediated through inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), the enzyme responsible for catalyzes the rate-limiting step in prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway.
Olanzapine was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression. It has also been established in treating depression off-label because of its mood-stabilizing properties and its ability to increase the efficacy of antidepressants. Olanzapine is manufactured and marketed by the pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly and Company. It is available as a pill that comes in the strengths of 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 7.5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg and as as Zydis orally disintegrating tablets in the strengths of 5 mg, 10 mg, 15 mg, and 20 mg. It is also available as a rapid-acting intramuscular injection for short term acute use. Olanzapine (oh-LAN-za-peen, sold as Zyprexa, Zydis, or in combination with fluoxetine, as Symbyax) was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. Olanzapine has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of schizophrenia, acute mania in bipolar disorder, agitation associated with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and as maintenance treatment in bipolar disorder and psychotic depression.
Metixene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a anticholinergic used as an anti-parkinson drug.
Cetirizine is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth. A potent second-generation histamine H1 antagonist that is effective in the treatment of allergic rhinitis, chronic urticaria, and pollen-induced asthma. Unlike many traditional antihistamines, it does not cause drowsiness or anticholinergic side effects. Cetirizine hydrochloride is a medication used for the treatment of allergies, hay fever, angioedema, and hives. It is a second-generation H1-receptor antagonist antihistamine and works by blocking H1 histamine receptors. It is a major metabolite of hydroxyzine, and has the same basic side effects, including dry mouth.
Terfenadine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. In the U.S., Terfenadine was superseded by fexofenadine in the 1990s due to the risk of cardiac arrhythmia caused by QT interval prolongation.Terfenadine competes with histamine for binding at H1-receptor sites in the GI tract, uterus, large blood vessels, and bronchial muscle. This reversible binding of terfenadine to H1-receptors suppresses the formation of edema, flare, and pruritus resulting from histaminic activity. As the drug does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier, CNS depression is minimal.
Diltiazem is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzothiazepine derivative with vasodilating action due to its antagonism of the actions of the calcium ion in membrane functions. It is also teratogenic. Possibly by deforming the channel, inhibiting ion-control gating mechanisms, and/or interfering with the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, diltiazem, like verapamil, inhibits the influx of extracellular calcium across both the myocardial and vascular smooth muscle cell membranes. The resultant inhibition of the contractile processes of the myocardial smooth muscle cells leads to dilation of the coronary and systemic arteries and improved oxygen delivery to the myocardial tissue.
Protriptyline hydrochloride is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, protriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, protriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. In addition, TCAs down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Protriptyline may be used for the treatment of depression.
Trimethadione is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anticonvulsant effective in absence seizures, but generally reserved for refractory cases because of its toxicity. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p378) Trimethadione reduces T-type calcium currents in thalamic neurons, including thalamic relay neurons. It does so via the inhibition of voltage dependent T-type calcium channels. This raises the threshold for repetitive activity in the thalamus, and inhibits corticothalamic transmission. Thus, the abnormal thalamocortical rhythmicity, which is thought to underlie the 3-Hz spike-and-wave discharge seen on electroencephalogram(EEG) with absence seizures, is dampened.
Anidulafungin or Eraxis is an anti-fungal drug manufactured by Pfizer that gained approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in February 21, 2006; it was previously known as LY303366. There is preliminary evidence that it has a similar safety profile to caspofungin.
A tricylic dibenzodiazepine, classified as an atypical antipsychotic agent. It binds several types of central nervous system receptors, and displays a unique pharmacological profile. Clozapine is a serotonin antagonist, with strong binding to 5-HT 2A/2C receptor subtype. It also displays strong affinity to several dopaminergic receptors, but shows only weak antagonism at the dopamine D2 receptor, a receptor commonly thought to modulate neuroleptic activity. Agranulocytosis is a major adverse effect associated with administration of this agent.
Mirtazapine is an antidepressant introduced by Organon International in 1996 used for the treatment of moderate to severe depression. Mirtazapine has a tetracyclic chemical structure and is classified as a noradrenergic and specific serotonergic antidepressant (NaSSA). It is the only tetracyclic antidepressant that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration to treat depression.
Trihexyphenidyl is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the centrally acting muscarinic antagonists used for treatment of parkinsonian disorders and drug-induced extrapyramidal movement disorders and as an antispasmodic. Trihexyphenidyl is a selective M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist. It is able to discriminate between the M1 (cortical or neuronal) and the peripheral muscarinic subtypes (cardiac and glandular). Trihexyphenidyl partially blocks cholinergic activity in the CNS, which is responsible for the symptoms of Parkinson's disease. It is also thought to increase the availability of dopamine, a brain chemical that is critical in the initiation and smooth control of voluntary muscle movement.
An antimitotic agent with immunosuppressive properties. Dexrazoxane, the (+)-enantiomorph of razoxane, provides cardioprotection against anthracycline toxicity. It appears to inhibit formation of a toxic iron-anthracycline complex. The Food and Drug Administration has designated dexrazoxane as an orphan drug for use in the prevention or reduction in the incidence and severity of anthracycline-induced cardiomyopathy.
Tacrine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a centerally active cholinesterase inhibitor that has been used to counter the effects of muscle relaxants, as a respiratory stimulant, and in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and other central nervous system disorders. The mechanism of tacrine is not fully known, but it is suggested that the drug is an anticholinesterase agent which reversibly binds with and inactivates cholinesterases. This inhibits the hydrolysis of acetylcholine released from functioning cholinergic neurons, thus leading to an accumulation of acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses. The result is a prolonged effect of acetylcholine.
Procyclidine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a muscarinic antagonist that crosses the blood-brain barrier and is used in the treatment of drug-induced extrapyramidal disorders and in parkinsonism. The mechanism of action is unknown. It is thought that Procyclidine acts by blocking central cholinergic receptors, and thus balancing cholinergic and dopaminergic activity in the basal ganglia. Many of its effects are due to its pharmacologic similarities with atropine. Procyclidine exerts an antispasmodic effect on smooth muscle, and may produce mydriasis and reduction in salivation.
Alprazolam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazolobenzodiazepine compound with antianxiety and sedative-hypnotic actions, that is efficacious in the treatment of panic disorders, with or without agoraphobia, and in generalized anxiety disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p238) Benzodiazepines bind nonspecifically to benzodiazepine receptors BNZ1, which mediates sleep, and BNZ2, which affects muscle relaxation, anticonvulsant activity, motor coordination, and memory. As benzodiazepine receptors are thought to be coupled to gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA<sub>A</sub>) receptors, this enhances the effects of GABA by increasing GABA affinity for the GABA receptor. Binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the site opens the chloride channel, resulting in a hyperpolarized cell membrane that prevents further excitation of the cell.
Loxapine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antipsychotic agent used in schizophrenia. Loxapine is a dopamine antagonist, and also a serotonin 5-HT2 blocker. The exact mode of action of Loxapine has not been established, however changes in the level of excitability of subcortical inhibitory areas have been observed in several animal species in association with such manifestations of tranquilization as calming effects and suppression of aggressive behavior.
Pramipexole is a medication indicated for treating Parkinson's disease and restless legs syndrome (RLS). It is also sometimes used off-label as a treatment for cluster headache or to counteract the problems with low libido experienced by some users of SSRI antidepressant drugs. Pramipexole has shown robust effects on pilot studies in bipolar disorder. Pramipexole is classified as a non-ergoline dopamine agonist.
Secobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbiturate derivative drug. It possesses anaesthetic, anticonvulsant, sedative and hypnotic properties. In the United Kingdom, it was known as Quinalbarbitone. Secobarbital binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged.
Methylphenidate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a central nervous system stimulant used most commonly in the treatment of attention-deficit disorders in children and for narcolepsy. Its mechanisms appear to be similar to those of dextroamphetamine. Methylphenidate blocks dopamine uptake in central adrenergic neurons by blocking dopamine transport or carrier proteins. Methylphenidate acts at the brain stem arousal system and the cerebral cortex and causes increased sympathomimetic activity in the central nervous system. Alteration of serotonergic pathways via changes in dopamine transport may result.
Zolpidem (sold under the brand names Ambien, Ambien CR, Stilnox, and Sublinox) is a prescription medication used for the treatment of insomnia, as well as some brain disorders. It is a short-acting nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic of the imidazopyridine class that potentiates gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter, by binding to GABAA receptors at the same location as benzodiazepines. It works quickly (usually within 15 minutes) and has a short half-life (two to three hours). Zolpidem has not adequately demonstrated effectiveness in maintaining sleep (unless delivered in a controlled-release form); however, it is effective in initiating sleep. Some users take zolpidem recreationally for these side effects. However, it may be less common than benzodiazepine abuse. Zolpidem can become addictive if taken for extended periods of time, due to dependence on its ability to put one to sleep or to the euphoria it can sometimes produce.
Streptozocin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug.It is an antibiotic that is produced by Stretomyces achromogenes. It is used as an antineoplastic agent and to induce diabetes in experimental animals. [PubChem]Although its mechanism of action is not completely clear, streptozocin is known to inhibit DNA synthesis, interfere with biochemical reactions of NAD and NADH, and inhibit some enzymes involved in gluconeogenesis. Its activity appears to occur as a result of formation of methylcarbonium ions, which alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures including nucleic acids. Its cytotoxic action is probably due to cross-linking of strands of DNA, resulting in inhibition of DNA synthesis.
Prochlorperazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine antipsychotic used principally in the treatment of nausea; vomiting; and vertigo. It is more likely than chlorpromazine to cause extrapyramidal disorders. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p612) The mechanism of action of prochlorperazine has not been fully determined, but may be primarily related to its antidopaminergic effects. Prochlorperazine blocks the D2 somatodendritic autoreceptor, resulting in the blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors in the mesolimbic system and an increased dopamine turnover. Prochlorperazine also has anti-emetic effects, which can be attributed to dopamine blockade in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. Prochlorperazine also blocks anticholinergic and alpha-adrenergic receptors, the blockade of alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors resulting in sedation, muscle relaxation, and hypotension.
Cyproheptadine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a serotonin antagonist and a histamine H1 blocker used as antipruritic, appetite stimulant, antiallergic, and for the post-gastrectomy dumping syndrome, etc. Cyproheptadine competes with free histamine for binding at HA-receptor sites. This antagonizes the effects of histamine on HA-receptors, leading to a reduction of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine HA-receptor binding. Cyproheptadine also competes with serotonin at receptor sites in smooth muscle in the intestines and other locations. Antagonism of serotonin on the appetite center of the hypothalamus may account for Cyproheptadine's ability to stimulate appetite.
Epirubicin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthracycline which is the 4&#39;-epi-isomer of doxorubicin. The compound exerts its antitumor effects by interference with the synthesis and function of DNA. Epirubicin has antimitotic and cytotoxic activity. It inhibits nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) and protein synthesis through a number of proposed mechanisms of action: Epirubicin forms complexes with DNA by intercalation between base pairs, and it inhibits topoisomerase II activity by stabilizing the DNA-topoisomerase II complex, preventing the religation portion of the ligation-religation reaction that topoisomerase II catalyzes. It also interferes with DNA replication and transcription by inhibiting DNA helicase activity.
A narcotic analgesic that can be used for the relief of most types of moderate to severe pain, including postoperative pain and the pain of labor. Prolonged use may lead to dependence of the morphine type; withdrawal symptoms appear more rapidly than with morphine and are of shorter duration.
Loratadine is a tricyclic antihistamine, which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It has a long-lasting effect and does not normally cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system; An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic; Loratadine is a drug used to treat allergies. It is marketed by Schering-Plough under several trade names such as Claritin, Clarityn or Claratyne depending on the market, by Lek as Lomilan and by Wyeth as Alavert. It is also available as a generic. Its active metabolite, desloratadine, is also on the market, though loratadine itself is the only drug of its class available over the counter (at least in the U.S. as of 2005. Loratadine is available off the shelf in the UK.
Imipramine, the prototypical tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), is a dibenzazepine-derivative TCA. TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, imipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, imipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as imipramine and amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. Imipramine has less sedative and anticholinergic effects than the tertiary amine TCAs, amitriptyline and clomipramine. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Imipramine may be used to treat depression and nocturnal enuresis in children. Unlabeled indications include chronic and neuropathic pain (including diabetic neuropathy), panic disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Metharbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It was patented in 1905 by Emil Fischer working for Merck. It was marketed as Gemonil by Abbott Laboratories. It is a barbiturate anticonvulsant, used in the treatment of epilepsy. It has similar properties to phenobarbital. Metharbital binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged. All of these effects are associated with marked decreases in GABA-sensitive neuronal calcium conductance (gCa). The net result of barbiturate action is acute potentiation of inhibitory GABAergic tone. Barbiturates also act through potent (if less well characterized) and direct inhibition of excitatory AMPA-type glutamate receptors, resulting in a profound suppression of glutamatergic neurotransmission.
Quinine is an alkaloid derived from the bark of the cinchona tree. It is used as an antimalarial drug, and is the active ingredient in extracts of the cinchona that have been used for that purpose since before 1633. Quinine is also a mild antipyretic and analgesic and has been used in common cold preparations for that purpose. It was used commonly and as a bitter and flavoring agent, and is still useful for the treatment of babesiosis. Quinine is also useful in some muscular disorders, especially nocturnal leg cramps and myotonia congenita, because of its direct effects on muscle membrane and sodium channels. The mechanisms of its antimalarial effects are not well understood.
A psychoactive compound extracted from the resin of Cannabis sativa (marihuana, hashish). The isomer delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is considered the most active form, producing characteristic mood and perceptual changes associated with this compound. Dronabinol is a synthetic form of delta-9-THC. THC has a very low solubility in water, but good solubility in most organic solvents, specifically lipids and alcohols. There has never been a documented human fatality solely from overdosing on tetrahydrocannabinol or cannabis in its natural form. However, numerous reports have suggested an association of cannabis smoking with an increased risk of myocardial infarction.
Fluoxetine hydrochloride is the first agent of the class of antidepressants known as selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Fluoxetine is a racemic mixture of the R- and S- enantiomers and are of equivalent pharmacologic activity. Despite distinct structural differences between compounds in this class, SSRIs possess similar pharmacological activity. As with other antidepressant agents, several weeks of therapy may be required before a clinical effect is seen. SSRIs are potent inhibitors of neuronal serotonin reuptake. They have little to no effect on norepinephrine or dopamine reuptake and do not antagonize &alpha;- or &beta;-adrenergic, dopamine D<sub>2</sub> or histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors. During acute use, SSRIs block serotonin reuptake and increase serotonin stimulation of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. Chronic use leads to desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. The overall clinical effect of increased mood and decreased anxiety is thought to be due to adaptive changes in neuronal function that leads to enhanced serotonergic neurotransmission. Side effects include dry mouth, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, sexual dysfunction and headache. Side effects generally occur within the first two weeks of therapy and are usually less severe and frequent than those observed with tricyclic antidepressants. Fluoxetine may be used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD), moderate to severe bulimia nervosa, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), panic disorder with or without agoraphobia, and in combination with olanzapine for treatment-resistant or bipolar I depression. Fluoxetine is the most anorexic and stimulating SSRI.
Methohexital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intravenous anesthetic with a short duration of action that may be used for induction of anesthesia. Methohexital binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged.
Chlordiazepoxide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic benzodiazepine derivative with anticonvulsant, sedative, and amnesic properties. It has also been used in the symptomatic treatment of alcohol withdrawal. Chlordiazepoxide binds to stereospecific benzodiazepine (BZD) binding sites on GABA (A) receptor complexes at several sites within the central nervous system, including the limbic system and reticular formation. This results in an increased binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the GABA(A) receptor.BZDs, therefore, enhance GABA-mediated chloride influx through GABA receptor channels, causing membrane hyperpolarization. The net neuro-inhibitory effects result in the observed sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant properties.
Duloxetine (brand names Cymbalta, Yentreve, and in parts of Europe, Xeristar or Ariclaim) is a drug which primarily targets major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), pain related to diabetic peripheral neuropathy and in some countries stress urinary incontinence (SUI). It is manufactured and marketed by Eli Lilly and Company.
Duloxetine has not yet been FDA approved for stress urinary incontinence or for fibromyalgia.
Duloxetine is a selective SNRI (selective serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor). Duloxetine is a systemic drug therapy which affects the body as a whole. Known also under the code name LY248686, it is a potent dual reuptake inhibitor of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE), possessing comparable affinities in binding to NE- and 5-HT transporter sites. It is a less potent inhibitor of dopamine reuptake.
The prototypical phenothiazine antipsychotic drug. Like the other drugs in this class, chlorpromazine's antipsychotic actions are thought to be due to long-term adaptation by the brain to blocking dopamine receptors. Chlorpromazine has several other actions and therapeutic uses, including as an antiemetic and in the treatment of intractable hiccup.
Buspirone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the benzodiazepines, but it has an efficacy comparable to diazepam. Buspirone binds to 5-HT type 1A serotonin receptors on presynaptic neurons in the dorsal raphe and on postsynaptic neurons in the hippocampus, thus inhibiting the firing rate of 5-HT-containing neurons in the dorsal raphe. Buspirone also binds at dopamine type 2 (DA2) receptors, blocking presynaptic dopamine receptors. Buspirone increases firing in the locus ceruleus, an area of brain where norepinephrine cell bodies are found in high concentration. The net result of buspirone actions is that serotonergic activity is suppressed while noradrenergic and dopaminergic cell firing is enhanced.
Entacapone is a selective, reversible catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibitor for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. It is a member of the class of nitrocatechols. When administered concomittantly with levodopa and a decarboxylase inhibitor (e.g., carbidopa), increased and more sustained plasma levodopa concentrations are reached as compared to the administration of levodopa and a decarboxylase inhibitor.
Oxycodone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a semisynthetic derivative of codeine that acts as a narcotic analgesic more potent and addicting than codeine. Oxycodone acts as a weak agonist at mu, kappa, and delta opioid receptors within the central nervous system (CNS). Oxycodone primarily affects mu-type opioid receptors, which are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as modulators, both positive and negative, of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids such as oxycodone also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin, and glucagon. Opioids close N-type voltage-operated calcium channels (kappa-receptor agonist) and open calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (mu and delta receptor agonist). This results in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits histamine binding to histamine H2 receptors. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits gastric acid secretion, as well as pepsin and gastrins output. It also blocks the activity of cytochrome P-450 which might explain proposals for use in neoadjuvant therapy.
Triflupromazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine used as an antipsychotic agent and as an antiemetic. Triflupromazine binds to the dopamine D1 and dopamine D2 receptors and inhibits their activity. The mechanism of the anti-emetic effect is due predominantly to blockage of the dopamine D2 neurotransmitter receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) and vomiting centre. Triflupromazine blocks the neurotransmitter dopamine and the vagus nerve in the gastrointestinal tract. Triflupromazine also binds the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (M1 and M2) and the tryptamine D receptors (5HT<sub>2B</sub>).
Nortriptyline hydrochloride, the <i>N</i>-demethylated active metabolite of amitriptyline, is a dibenzocycloheptene-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, nortriptyline does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, nortriptyline exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of norepinephrine reuptake than tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Nortriptyline exerts less anticholinergic and sedative side effects compared to the tertiary amine TCAs, amitriptyline and clomipramine. Nortriptyline may be used to treat depression, chronic pain (unlabeled use), irritable bowel syndrome (unlabeled use), diabetic neuropathy (unlabeled use), post-traumatic stress disorder (unlabeled use), and for migraine prophylaxis (unlabeled use).
Amoxapine, the <i>N</i>-demethylated derivative of the antipsychotic agent loxapine, is a dibenzoxazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, amoxapine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, amoxapine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. In addition, TCAs down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Amoxapine may be used to treat neurotic and reactive depressive disorders, endogenous and psychotic depression, and mixed symptoms of depression and anxiety or agitation.
Pyridostigmine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor with a slightly longer duration of action than neostigmine. It is used in the treatment of myasthenia gravis and to reverse the actions of muscle relaxants. Pyridostigmine inhibits acetylcholinesterase in the synaptic cleft by competing with acetylcholine for attachment to acetylcholinesterase, thus slowing down the hydrolysis of acetylcholine, and thereby increases efficiency of cholinergic transmission in the neuromuscular junction and prolonges the effects of acetylcholine.
Pentostatin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent inhibitor of adenosine deaminase. The drug is effective in the treatment of many lymphoproliferative malignancies, particularly hairy-cell leukemia. It is also synergistic with some other antineoplastic agents and has immunosuppressive activity. Pentostatin is a potent transition state inhibitor of adenosine deaminase (ADA), the greatest activity of which is found in cells of the lymphoid system. T-cells have higher ADA activity than B-cells, and T-cell malignancies have higher activity than B-cell malignancies. The cytotoxicity that results from prevention of catabolism of adenosine or deoxyadenosine is thought to be due to elevated intracellular levels of dATP, which can block DNA synthesis through inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase. Intracellular activation results in incorporation into DNA as a false purine base. An additional cytotoxic effect is related to its incorporation into RNA. Cytotoxicity is cell cycle phase-specific (S-phase).
A histamine H1 receptor antagonist that is effective in the treatment of chronic urticaria, dermatitis, and histamine-mediated pruritus. Unlike its major metabolite cetirizine, it does cause drowsiness. It is also effective as an antiemetic, for relief of anxiety and tension, and as a sedative.
Benzthiazide is used to treat hypertension and edema. Like other thiazides, benzthiazide promotes water loss from the body (diuretics). They inhibit Na+/Cl- reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules in the kidneys. Thiazides also cause loss of potassium and an increase in serum uric acid. Thiazides are often used to treat hypertension, but their hypotensive effects are not necessarily due to their diuretic activity. Thiazides have been shown to prevent hypertension-related morbidity and mortality although the mechanism is not fully understood. Thiazides cause vasodilation by activating calcium-activated potassium channels (large conductance) in vascular smooth muscles and inhibiting various carbonic anhydrases in vascular tissue.
An anticonvulsant used to control grand mal and psychomotor or focal seizures. Its mode of action is not fully understood, but some of its actions resemble those of phenytoin; although there is little chemical resemblance between the two compounds, their three-dimensional structure is similar.
Clonidine, an imidazoline-derivative hypotensive agent is a centrally-acting &alpha;<sub>2</sub>-adrenergic agonist. It crosses the blood-brain barrier and acts in the hypothalamus to induce a decrease in blood pressure. It may also be administered as an epidural infusion as an adjunct treatment in the management of severe cancer pain that is not relieved by opiate analgesics alone. Clonidine may be used for differential diagnosis of pheochromocytoma in hypertensive patients. Other uses for clonidine include prophylaxis of vascular migraine headaches, treatment of severe dysmenorrhea, management of vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause, rapid detoxification in the management of opiate withdrawal, treatment of alcohol withdrawal used in conjunction with benzodiazepines, management of nicotine dependence, topical use to reduce intraocular pressure in the treatment of open-angle and secondary glaucoma and hemorrhagic glaucoma associated with hypertension, and in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clonidine also exhibits some peripheral activity.
Mazindol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a tricyclic anorexigenic agent unrelated to and less toxic than amphetamine, but with some similar side effects. It inhibits uptake of catecholamines and blocks the binding of cocaine to the dopamine uptake transporter. Although the mechanism of action of the sympathomimetics in the treatment of obesity is not fully known, these medications have pharmacological effects similar to those of amphetamines. Unlike other sympathomimetic appetite suppressants such as phentermine, mazindol is thought to inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine rather than to cause its release.
Ethosuximide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anticonvulsant especially useful in the treatment of absence seizures unaccompanied by other types of seizures. [PubChem]Binds to T-type voltage sensitive calcium channels. Voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCC) mediate the entry of calcium ions into excitable cells and are also involved in a variety of calcium-dependent processes, including muscle contraction, hormone or neurotransmitter release, gene expression, cell motility, cell division and cell death. The isoform alpha-1G gives rise to T-type calcium currents. T-type calcium channels belong to the low-voltage activated (LVA) group and are strongly blocked by mibefradil. A particularity of this type of channels is an opening at quite negative potentials and a voltage-dependent inactivation. T-type channels serve pacemaking functions in both central neurons and cardiac nodal cells and support calcium signaling in secretory cells and vascular smooth muscle. They may also be involved in the modulation of firing patterns of neurons which is important for information processing as well as in cell growth processes.
Thiopental is a barbiturate that is administered intravenously for the induction of general anesthesia or for the production of complete anesthesia of short duration. It is also used for hypnosis and for the control of convulsive states. It has been used in neurosurgical patients to reduce increased intracranial pressure. It does not produce any excitation but has poor analgesic and muscle relaxant properties. Small doses have been shown to be anti-analgesic and lower the pain threshold. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p920)
In many countries (including Canada) cisapride has been either withdrawn or has had its indications limited due to reports about long QT syndrome due to cisapride, which predisposes to arrhythmias. The FDA issued a warning letter regarding this risk to health care professionals and patients.
Butorphanol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic morphinan analgesic with narcotic antagonist action. It is used in the management of severe pain. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown, but is believed to interact with an opiate receptor site in the CNS (probably in or associated with the limbic system). The opiate antagonistic effect may result from competitive inhibition at the opiate receptor, but may also be a result of other mechanisms. Butorphanol is a mixed agonist-antagonist that exerts antagonistic or partially antagonistic effects at mu opiate receptor sites, but is thought to exert its agonistic effects principally at the kappa and sigma opiate receptors.
Rifabutin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that is being used as prophylaxis against disseminated Mycobacterium avium complex infection in HIV-positive patients. [PubChem]Rifabutin acts via the inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase in gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria, leading to a suppression of RNA synthesis and cell death.
Paramethadione is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anticonvulsant in the oxazolidinedione class. It is associated with fetal trimethadione syndrome, which is also known as paramethadione syndrome.Dione anticonvulsants such as paramethadione reduce T-type calcium currents in thalamic neurons (including thalamic relay neurons). This inhibits corticothalamic transmission and raises the threshold for repetitive activity in the thalamus. This results in a dampening of the abnormal thalamocortical rhythmicity proposed to underlie the 3-Hz spike-and-wave discharge seen on electroencephalogram (EEG) during absence seizures.
Fluphenazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine used in the treatment of psychoses. Its properties and uses are generally similar to those of chlorpromazine. [PubChem]Fluphenazine blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors in the brain; depresses the release of hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones and is believed to depress the reticular activating system thus affecting basal metabolism, body temperature, wakefulness, vasomotor tone, and emesis.
Nicotinic acid, also known as niacin or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. The designation vitamin B3 also includes the amide form, nicotinamide or niacinamide. Severe lack of niacin causes the deficiency disease pellagra, whereas a mild deficiency slows down the metabolism decreasing cold tolerance. The recommended daily allowance of niacin is 2-12 mg a day for children, 14 mg a day for women, 16 mg a day for men, and 18 mg a day for pregnant or breast-feeding women. It is found in various animal and plant tissues and has pellagra-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties. The liver can synthesize niacin from the essential amino acid tryptophan (see below), but the synthesis is extremely slow and requires vitamin B6; 60 mg of tryptophan are required to make one milligram of niacin. Bacteria in the gut may also perform the conversion but are inefficient.
Clorazepate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a water-soluble benzodiazepine derivative effective in the treatment of anxiety. It has also muscle relaxant and anticonvulsant actions. [PubChem]Benzodiazepines bind nonspecifically to benzodiazepine receptors BNZ1, which mediates sleep, and BNZ2, which affects affects muscle relaxation, anticonvulsant activity, motor coordination, and memory. As benzodiazepine receptors are thought to be coupled to gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA<sub>A</sub>) receptors, this enhances the effects of GABA by increasing GABA affinity for the GABA receptor. Binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the site opens the chloride channel, resulting in a hyperpolarized cell membrane that prevents further excitation of the cell.
Astemizole is a long-acting, non-sedating second generation antihistamine used in the treatment of allergy symptoms. It was withdrawn from market by the manufacturer in 1999 due to the potential to cause arrhythmias at high doses, especially when  when taken with CYP inhibitors or grapefruit juice.
Nystatin is a polyene antifungal drug to which many molds and yeasts are sensitive, including Candida spp. Nystatin has some toxicity associated with it when given intravenously, but it is not absorbed across intact skin or mucous membranes. It is considered a relatively safe drug for treating oral or gastrointestinal fungal infections.
Propoxyphene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic structurally related to methadone. Only the dextro-isomer has an analgesic effect; the levo-isomer appears to exert an antitussive effect. [PubChem]Propoxyphene acts as a weak agonist at OP1, OP2, and OP3 opiate receptors within the central nervous system (CNS). Propoxyphene primarily affects OP3 receptors, which are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as modulators, both positive and negative, of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids such as propoxyphene also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin, and glucagon. Opioids close N-type voltage-operated calcium channels (OP2-receptor agonist) and open calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (OP3 and OP1 receptor agonist). This results in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
The active metabolite of Folic acid, Pteroyl-D-glutamic acid is used principally as its calcium salt as an antidote to folic acid antagonists which block the conversion of folic acid to folinic acid. Folic acid, a water-soluble B-complex vitamin, is found in foods such as liver, kidneys, yeast, and leafy, green vegetables. Folic acid is used to diagnose folate deficiency and to treat topical sprue and megaloblastic and macrocytic anemias, hematologic complications resulting from a deficiency in folic acid. A member of the vitamin B family that stimulates the hematopoietic system. It is present in the liver and kidney and is found in mushrooms, spinach, yeast, green leaves, and grasses (poaceae). Folic acid is used in the treatment and prevention of folate deficiencies and megaloblastic anemia.
Pentazocine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the first mixed agonist-antagonist analgesic to be marketed. It is an agonist at the kappa and sigma opioid receptors and has a weak antagonist action at the mu receptor. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1991, p97)The preponderance of evidence suggests that pentazocine antagonizes the opioid effects by competing for the same receptor sites, especially the opioid mu receptor.
A small colorless crystal used as an anticonvulsant, a cathartic, and an electrolyte replenisher in the treatment of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia. It causes direct inhibition of action potentials in myometrial muscle cells. Excitation and contraction are uncoupled, which decreases the frequency and force of contractions. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p1083)
A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used as an antidepressive agent. It has been shown to be effective in patients with major depressive disorders and other subsets of depressive disorders. It is generally more useful in depressive disorders associated with insomnia and anxiety. This drug does not aggravate psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p309)
Acamprosate, also known by the brand name Campral&trade;, is a drug used for treating alcohol dependence. Acamprosate is thought to stabilize the chemical balance in the brain that would otherwise be disrupted by alcoholism, possibly by blocking glutaminergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, while gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptors are activated. Reports indicate that acamprosate only works with a combination of attending support groups and abstinence from alcohol. Certain serious side effects include allergic reactions, irregular heartbeats, and low or high blood pressure, while less serious side effects include headaches, insomnia, and impotence. Acamprosate should not be taken by people with kidney problems or allergies to the drug.
Nafarelin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent synthetic agonist of gonadotropin-releasing hormone with 3-(2-naphthyl)-D-alanine substitution at residue 6. Nafarelin has been used in the treatments of central precocious puberty and endometriosis. [PubChem]Like GnRH, initial or intermittent administration of nafarelin stimulates release of the gonadotropins luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn transiently increases production of estradiol in females and testosterone in both sexes. However, with continuous daily administration, nafarelin continuously occupies the GnRH receptor, leading to a reversible down-regulation of the GnRH receptors in the pituitary gland and desensitization of the pituitary gonadotropes. This causes a significant and sustained decline in the production of LH and FSH. A decline in gonadotropin production and release causes a dramatic reversible decrease in synthesis of estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone by the ovaries or testes. Like normal endometrium, endometriotic implants contain estrogen receptors. Estrogen stimulates the growth of endometrium. Use of nafarelin induces anovulation and amenorrhea and decreases serum concentrations of estradiol to the postmenopausal range, which induces atrophy of endometriotic implants. However, nafarelin does not abolish the underlying pathophysiology of endometriosis. In children with central precocious puberty receiving nafarelin, serum LH, testosterone, and estradiol concentrations return to prepubertal levels. This results in the supression of secondary sexual characteristics and decrased rate of linear growth and skeletal maturation. Following disconinuation of nafarelin, the effects of the drug is reversed, meaning FSH and LH concentrations usually return to pretreatment levels.
Oftentimes, serotonin levels in the brain become extremely erratic before the onset of a migraine. In an attempt to stabilize this, sumatriptan is administered to help aid in leveling the serotonin levels in the brain. Sumatriptan is structurally similar to serotonin, and is a 5-HT (5-HT1D) agonist, which is one of the receptors that serotonin binds to. The specific receptor subtype it activates is present in the cranial and basilar arteries. Activation of these receptors causes vasoconstriction of those dilated arteries. Sumatriptan is also shown to decrease the activity of the trigeminal nerve. Sumatriptan is a triptan drug including a sulfonamide group structurally similar to serotonin, and is a 5-HT (5-HT1D) agonist, which is one of the receptors that serotonin binds to. Oftentimes, serotonin levels in the brain become extremely erratic before the onset of a migraine. In an attempt to stabilize this, sumatriptan is administered to help aid in leveling the serotonin levels in the brain. A serotonin agonist that acts selectively at 5HT1 receptors. It is used in the treatment of migraines. Sumatriptan (Imitrex, Imigran, Imigran Recovery) is a triptan drug including a sulfonamide group which was originally developed by Glaxo for the treatment of migraine headaches.
A benzazepine derived from norbelladine. It is found in galanthus and other amaryllidaceae. Galantamine is a cholinesterase inhibitor that has been used to reverse the muscular effects of gallamine triethiodide and tubocurarine, and has been studied as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease and other central nervous system disorders. [PubChem]
A phenothiazine antipsychotic used in the management of psychoses, including schizophrenia, and in the control of severely disturbed or agitated behavior. It has little antiemetic activity. Thioridazine has a higher incidence of antimuscarinic effects, but a lower incidence of extrapyramidal symptoms, than chlorpromazine. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p618)
A short-acting hypnotic-sedative drug with anxiolytic and amnestic properties. It is used in dentistry, cardiac surgery, endoscopic procedures, as preanesthetic medication, and as an adjunct to local anesthesia. The short duration and cardiorespiratory stability makes it useful in poor-risk, elderly, and cardiac patients.  It is water-soluble at pH less than 4 and lipid-soluble at physiological pH. [PubChem] Midazolam is a schedule IV drug in the United States.
Flurazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine derivative used mainly as a hypnotic. [PubChem]Flurazepam binds to an allosteric site on GABA-A receptors. Binding potentiates the action of GABA on GABA-A receptors by opening the chloride channel within the receptor, causing chloride influx and hyperpolarization.
Daunorubicin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a very toxic anthracycline aminoglycoside antineoplastic isolated from Streptomyces peucetius and others, used in treatment of leukemia and other neoplasms. [PubChem]Daunorubicin has antimitotic and cytotoxic activity through a number of proposed mechanisms of action: Daunorubicin forms complexes with DNA by intercalation between base pairs, and it inhibits topoisomerase II activity by stabilizing the DNA-topoisomerase II complex, preventing the religation portion of the ligation-religation reaction that topoisomerase II catalyzes.
Tizanidine is a short-acting drug for the management of spasticity. Tizanidine is an agonist at a2-adrenergic receptor sites and presumably reduces spasticity by increasing presynaptic inhibition of motor neurons. In animal models, tizanidine has no direct effect on skeletal muscle fibers or the neuromuscular junction, and no major effect on monosynaptic spinal reflexes. The effects of tizanidine are greatest on polysynaptic pathways. The overall effect of these actions is thought to reduce facilitation of spinal motor neurons.
Amprenavir is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a protease inhibitor used to treat HIV infection.Amprenavir inhibits the HIV viral proteinase enzyme which prevents cleavage of the gag-pol polyprotein, resulting in noninfectious, immature viral particles.
Derivative of noroxymorphone that is the N-cyclopropylmethyl congener of naloxone. It is a narcotic antagonist that is effective orally, longer lasting and more potent than naloxone, and has been proposed for the treatment of heroin addiction. The FDA has approved naltrexone for the treatment of alcohol dependence. [PubChem]
Sufentanil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an opioid analgesic that is used as an adjunct in anesthesia, in balanced anesthesia, and as a primary anesthetic agent. [PubChem]Opiate receptors are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as both positive and negative regulators of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin and glucagon. Sufentanil's analgesic activity is, most likely, due to its conversion to morphine. Opioids open calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (OP1 receptor agonist). This results in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
Flurbiprofen, a propionic acid derivative, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with antipyretic and analgesic activity. Oral formulations of flurbiprofen may be used for the symptomatic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and anklylosing spondylitis. Flurbiprofen may also be used topically prior to ocular surgery to prevent or reduce intraoperative miosis. Flurbiprofen is structurally and pharmacologically related to fenoprofen, ibuprofen, and ketoprofen.
A derivative of morphine that is a dopamine D2 agonist. It is a powerful emetic and has been used for that effect in acute poisoning. It has also been used in the diagnosis and treatment of parkinsonism, but its adverse effects limit its use. [PubChem]
Procaine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a local anesthetic of the ester type that has a slow onset and a short duration of action. It is mainly used for infiltration anesthesia, peripheral nerve block, and spinal block. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1016). [PubChem]Procaine acts mainly by inhibiting sodium influx through voltage gated sodium channels in the neuronal cell membrane of peripheral nerves. When the influx of sodium is interrupted, an action potential cannot arise and signal conduction is thus inhibited. The receptor site is thought to be located at the cytoplasmic (inner) portion of the sodium channel. Procaine has also been shown to bind or antagonize the function of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors as well as nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the serotonin receptor-ion channel complex.
Trimipramine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a tricyclic antidepressant similar to imipramine, but with more antihistaminic and sedative properties. [PubChem]Trimipramine's mechanism of action differs from other tricyclic antidepressants. Trimipramine acts by decreasing the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin (5-HT).
Risperidone is an atypical antipsychotic medication approved in 1993. It is most often used to treat delusional psychosis (including schizophrenia), but risperidone (like other atypical antipsychotics) is also used to treat some forms of bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and Tourette syndrome. Generally lower doses are used for autistic spectrum disorders than are used for schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis; Risperidone is a very strong dopamine blocker (antagonist); Risperidone is a very strong dopamine blocker (antagonist); i.e., it inhibits functioning of postsynaptic dopamine receptors. An anxiolytic agent and a serotonin receptor agonist belonging to the azaspirodecanedione class of compounds. Its structure is unrelated to those of the benzodiazepines, but it has an efficacy comparable to diazepam; i.e., it inhibits functioning of postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Risperidone (Belivon, Rispen, Risperdal; in the United States) is an atypical antipsychotic medication. It was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1993. It is most often used to treat delusional psychosis (including schizophrenia), but risperidone (like other atypical antipsychotics) is also used to treat some forms of bipolar disorder, psychotic depression and Tourette syndrome; risperidone has received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for symptomatic treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents. Risperidone is now the most commonly prescribed antipsychotic medication in the United States.
Esomeprazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a highly effective inhibitor of gastric acid secretion used in the therapy of stomach ulcers and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. The drug inhibits the H(+)-K(+)-ATPase (H(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase) in the proton pump of gastric parietal cells. [PubChem]Esomeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor that suppresses gastric acid secretion by specific inhibition of the H<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup>-ATPase in the gastric parietal cell. By acting specifically on the proton pump, Esomeprazole blocks the final step in acid production, thus reducing gastric acidity.
Meclizine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a histamine H1 antagonist used in the treatment of motion sickness, vertigo, and nausea during pregnancy and radiation sickness. [PubChem]Along with its actions as an antagonist at H<sub>1</sub>-receptors, meclizine also possesses anticholinergic, central nervous system depressant, and local anesthetic effects. Meclizine depresses labyrinth excitability and vestibular stimulation and may affect the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone.
Riluzole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a glutamate antagonist (receptors, glutamate) used as an anticonvulsant (anticonvulsants) and to prolong the survival of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. [PubChem]The mode of action of riluzole is unknown. Its pharmacological properties include the following, some of which may be related to its effect: 1) an inhibitory effect on glutamate release (activation of glutamate reuptake), 2) inactivation of voltage-dependent sodium channels, and 3) ability to interfere with intracellular events that follow transmitter binding at excitatory amino acid receptors.
Modafinil is a stimulant drug marketed as a 'wakefulness promoting agent' and is one of the stimulants used in the treatment of narcolepsy. Narcolepsy is caused by dysfunction of a family of wakefulness-promoting and sleep-suppressing peptides, the orexins, whose neurons are activated by modafinil. The prexin neuron activation is associated with psychoactivation and euphoria. The exact mechanism of action is unclear, although in vitro studies have shown it to inhibit the reuptake of dopamine by binding to the dopamine reuptake pump, and lead to an increase in extracellular dopamine. Modafinil activates glutamatergic circuits while inhibiting GABA.
Scopolamine, also known as hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug obtained from plants of the family Solanaceae (nightshades), such as henbane or jimson weed (Datura species). It is part of the secondary metabolites of plants. Scopolamine is used criminally as a date rape drug and as an aid to robbery, the most common act being the clandestine drugging of a victim's drink. It is preferred because it induces retrograde amnesia, or an inability to recall events prior to its administration. Victims of this crime are often admitted to a hospital in police custody, under the assumption that the patient is experiencing a psychotic episode. A telltale sign is a fever accompanied by a lack of sweat. An alkaloid from Solanaceae, especially Datura metel L. and Scopola carniolica. Scopolamine and its quaternary derivatives act as antimuscarinics like atropine, but may have more central nervous system effects. Among the many uses are as an anesthetic premedication, in urinary incontinence, in motion sickness, as an antispasmodic, and as a mydriatic and cycloplegic.
A propylamine formed from the cyclization of the side chain of amphetamine. This monoamine oxidase inhibitor is effective in the treatment of major depression, dysthymic disorder, and atypical depression. It also is useful in panic and phobic disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p311)
Isoflurane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a stable, non-explosive inhalation anesthetic, relatively free from significant side effects. [PubChem]Isoflurane induces a reduction in junctional conductance by decreasing gap junction channel opening times and increasing gap junction channel closing times. Isoflurane also activates calcium dependent ATPase in the sarcoplasmic reticulum by increasing the fluidity of the lipid membrane. Also appears to bind the D subunit of ATP synthase and NADH dehydogenase. Isoflurane also binds to the GABA receptor, the large conductance Ca<sup>2+</sup> activated potassium channel, the glutamate receptor and the glycine receptor.
Ethotoin is a hydantoin derivative and anticonvulsant. Ethotoin exerts an antiepileptic effect without causing general central nervous system depression. The mechanism of action is probably very similar to that of phenytoin. The latter drug appears to stabilize rather than to raise the normal seizure threshold, and to prevent the spread of seizure activity rather than to abolish the primary focus of seizure discharges. Ethotoin is no longer  commonly used.
Tretinoin, also known as all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA), is a naturally occurring derivative of vitamin A (retinol). Retinoids such as tretinoin are important regulators of cell reproduction, proliferation, and differentiation and are used to treat acne and photodamaged skin and to manage keratinization disorders such as ichthyosis and keratosis follicularis. Tretinoin also represents the class of anticancer drugs called differentiating agents and is used in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL).
Used to treat allergic conjunctivitis (itching eyes), olopatadine inhibits the release of histamine from mast cells. It is a relatively selective histamine H1 antagonist that inhibits the in vivo and in vitro type 1 immediate hypersensitivity reaction including inhibition of histamine induced effects on human conjunctival epithelial cells.
Oxcarbazepine is structurally a derivative of carbamazepine, adding an extra oxygen atom to the benzylcarboxamide group. This difference helps reduce the impact on the liver of metabolizing the drug, and also prevents the serious forms of anemia occasionally associated with carbamazepine. Aside from this reduction in side effects, it is thought to have the same mechanism as carbamazepine - sodium channel inhibition - and is generally used to treat partial seizures in epileptic children and adults.
Propiomazine, an atypical antipsychotic agent, is used to treat both negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia, acute mania with bipolar disorder, agitation, and psychotic symptoms in dementia. Future uses may include the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder and severe behavioral disorders in autism. Structurally and pharmacologically similar to clozapine, propiomazine binds to alpha(1), dopamine, histamine H1, muscarinic, and serotonin type 2 (5-HT2) receptors.
Phenelzine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an irreversible non-selective inhibitor of monoamine oxidase. May be used to treat major depressive disorder.Although the exact mechanism of action has not been determined, it appears that the irreversible, nonselective inhibition of MAO by phenelzine relieves depressive symptoms by causing an increase in the levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine in the neuron.
Sulfasalazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug that is used in the management of inflammatory bowel diseases. Its activity is generally considered to lie in its metabolic breakdown product, 5-aminosalicylic acid (see mesalamine) released in the colon. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p907)The mode of action of Sulfasalazine or its metabolites, 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) and sulfapyridine (SP), is still under investigation, but may be related to the anti-inflammatory and/or immunomodulatory properties that have been observed in animal and <i>in vitro</i> models, to its affinity for connective tissue, and/or to the relatively high concentration it reaches in serous fluids, the liver and intestinal walls, as demonstrated in autoradiographic studies in animals. In ulcerative colitis, clinical studies utilizing rectal administration of Sulfasalazine, SP and 5-ASA have indicated that the major therapeutic action may reside in the 5-ASA moiety. The relative contribution of the parent drug and the major metabolites in rheumatoid arthritis is unknown.
Halazepam is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is a trifluoromethyl derivative of nordazepam. While its structure may be similar to chlordiazepoxide and diazepam, it has both less toxicity and less tendency to cause paradoxical hostility and aggression than either of them. Halazepam is no longer marketed in the United States, and was withdrawn by Schering-Plough due to poor sales. [Wikipedia]
A short-acting opioid anesthetic and analgesic derivative of fentanyl. It produces an early peak analgesic effect and fast recovery of consciousness. Alfentanil is effective as an anesthetic during surgery, for supplementation of analgesia during surgical procedures, and as an analgesic for critically ill patients. [PubChem]
Proparacaine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a topical anesthetic drug of the amino ester group. It is available as its hydrochloride salt in ophthalmic solutions at a concentration of 0.5%. [Wikipedia]The exact mechanism whereby proparacaine and other local anesthetics influence the permeability of the cell membrane is unknown; however, several studies indicate that local anesthetics may limit sodium ion permeability through the lipid layer of the nerve cell membrane. Proparacaine may alter epithelial sodium channels through interaction with channel protein residues. This limitation prevents the fundamental change necessary for the generation of the action potential.
A muscarinic antagonist that has effects in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. It has been used in the treatment of arteriosclerotic, idiopathic, and postencephalitic parkinsonism. It has also been used to alleviate extrapyramidal symptoms induced by phenothiazine derivatives and reserpine. [PubChem]
A potent narcotic analgesic, abuse of which leads to habituation or addiction. It is primarily a mu-opioid agonist. Fentanyl is also used as an adjunct to general anesthetics, and as an anesthetic for induction and maintenance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1078)
Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component. It is closely related to piroxicam. In Europe it is marketed under the brand names Movalis, Melox, and Recoxa. In North America it is generally marketed under the brand name Mobic. In Latin America, the drug is marketed as Tenaron. [Wikipedia]
Propofol is an intravenous anaesthetic agent used for induction and maintenance of general anaesthesia. IV administration of propfol is used to induce unconsciousness after which anaesthesia may be maintained using a combination of medications. Recovery from propofol-induced anaesthesia is generally rapid and associated with less frequent side effects (e.g. drowsiness, nausea, vomiting) than with thiopental, methohexital, and etomidate. Propofol may be used prior to diagnostic procedures requiring anaesthesia, in the management of refractory status epilepticus, and for induction and/or maintenance of anaesthesia prior to and during surgeries.
Diazepam is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, sedative, muscle relaxant, and amnesic properties and a long duration of action. Its actions are mediated by enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid activity. It is used in the treatment of severe anxiety disorders, as a hypnotic in the short-term management of insomnia, as a sedative and premedicant, as an anticonvulsant, and in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p589).
A sympathomimetic drug used primarily as an appetite depressant. Its actions and mechanisms are similar to dextroamphetamine. [PubChem]
Trifluoperazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine with actions similar to chlorpromazine. It is used as an antipsychotic and an antiemetic. [PubChem]Trifluoperazine blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors in the brain; depresses the release of hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones and is believed to depress the reticular activating system thus affecting basal metabolism, body temperature, wakefulness, vasomotor tone, and emesis.
A progestational and glucocorticoid hormone antagonist. Its inhibition of progesterone induces bleeding during the luteal phase and in early pregnancy by releasing endogenous prostaglandins from the endometrium or decidua. As a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, the drug has been used to treat hypercortisolism in patients with nonpituitary cushing syndrome [PubChem]. The two marketed forms of mifepristone are Mifeprex&#174; (mifepristone 200mg) and Korlym&#8482; (mifepristone 300mg). Currently under investigation for use in psychotic depression (phase 3 trials).
Progabide is an analog and prodrug of gamma-aminobutyric acid. It is commonly used in the treatment of epilepsy. It has agonistic activity for both the GABAA and GABAB receptors. Progabide has been investigated for many diseases besides epilepsy, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, clinical depression and anxiety disorder with varying success.
Oxazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an intermediate-acting benzodiazepine used to treat alcohol withdrawal and anxiety disorders. Similar to other benzodiazepines, oxazepam exerts its anxiolytic effects by potentiating the effect of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) on GABA-A receptors through a cooperative mechanism of action. GABA receptors are ionotropic chloride-linked channel receptors that produce inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. When activated by GABA, the GABA receptor/chloride ionophore complex undergoes a conformational change that allows the passage of chloride ions through the channel. Benzodiazepines are believed to exert their effect by increasing the effect of GABA at its receptor. Benzodiazepine binding increases chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by increasing the frequency at which the channel opens. In contrast, barbiturates increase chloride conductance in the presence of GABA by prolonging the time in which the channel remains open. There are 18 subtypes of the GABA receptor subunits. The &alpha;<sub>2</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>2</sub>&beta;<sub>3</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate anxiolytic effects while the &alpha;<sub>1</sub> subunit of the &alpha;<sub>1</sub>&beta;<sub>2</sub>&gamma;<sub>2</sub> receptor complex is thought to mediate sedative, anticonvulsant and anterograde amnesia effects. Oxazepam is also the metabolite of other benzodiazpines.
Nalbuphine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic used as a pain medication. It appears to be an agonist at kappa opioid receptors and an antagonist or partial agonist at mu opioid receptors. [PubChem]The exact mechanism of action is unknown, but is believed to interact with an opiate receptor site in the CNS (probably in or associated with the limbic system). The opiate antagonistic effect may result from competitive inhibition at the opiate receptor, but may also be a result of other mechanisms. Nalbuphine is thought primarily to be a kappa agonist. It is also a partial mu antagonist analgesic, with some binding to the delta receptor and minimal agonist activity at the sigma receptor.
An antipsychotic phenothiazine derivative with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpromazine. [PubChem]
Levorphanol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic that may be habit-forming. It is nearly as effective orally as by injection. [PubChem]Like other mu-agonist opioids it is believed to act at receptors in the periventricular and periaqueductal gray matter in both the brain and spinal cord to alter the transmission and perception of pain.
Drostanolone  (also known as dromostanolone) is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a potent synthetic androgenic anabolic steroid similar to testosterone. Drostanolone is indicated in postmenopausal women with recurrent breast cancer, in a combined hormone therapy.Dromostanolone is a synthetic androgenic anabolic steroid and is approximately 5 times as potent as natural methyltestosterone. Like testosterone and other androgenic hormones, dromostanolone binds to the androgen receptor. This causes downstream genetic transcriptional changes. This ultimately causes retention of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus; increases protein anabolism; and decreases amino acid catabolism. The antitumour activity of dromostanolone appears related to reduction or competitive inhibition of prolactin receptors or estrogen receptors or production.
Diflunisal, a salicylate derivative, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAIA) with pharmacologic actions similar to other prototypical NSAIAs. Diflunisal possesses anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic activity. Though its mechanism of action has not been clearly established, most of its actions appear to be associated with inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis via the arachidonic acid pathway. Diflunisal is used to relieve pain accompanied with inflammation and in the symptomatic treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis.
A sympathomimetic agent with properties similar to dextroamphetamine. It is used in the treatment of obesity. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1222)
Flupentixol is an antipsychotic neuroleptic drug. It is a thioxanthene, and therefore closely related to the phenothiazines. Its primary use is as a long acting injection given two or three weekly to people with schizophrenia who have a poor compliance with medication and suffer frequent relapses of illness. It is a D1 and D2 receptor antagonist. It is not approved in the United States.
A macrolide compound obtained from Streptomyces hygroscopicus that acts by selectively blocking the transcriptional activation of cytokines thereby inhibiting cytokine production. It is bioactive only when bound to immunophilins. Sirolimus is a potent immunosuppressant and possesses both antifungal and antineoplastic properties. [PubChem]
Methdilazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine compound with antihistaminic activity. It is used in the treatment of various dermatoses to relieve pruritus.Methdilazine binds to the histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptor. This blocks the action of endogenous histamine, which subsequently leads to temporary relief of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine.
Ondansetron is a well tolerated drug with few side effects. Headache, constipation, and dizziness are the most commonly reported side effects associated with its use. There have been no significant drug interactions reported with this drugs use. It is broken down by the hepatic cytochrome P450 system and it has little effect on the metabolism of other drugs broken down by this system; Ondansetron is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used mainly to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its effects are thought to be on both peripheral and central nerves. One part is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata, the other is a blockage of serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It does not have much effect on vomiting due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors; A competitive serotonin type 3 receptor antagonist. It is effective in the treatment of nausea and vomiting caused by cytotoxic chemotherapy drugs, including cisplatin, and has reported anxiolytic and neuroleptic properties; Ondansetron (INN) is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist used mainly to treat nausea and vomiting following chemotherapy. Its effects are thought to be on both peripheral and central nerves. One part is to reduce the activity of the vagus nerve, which is a nerve that activates the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata, the other is a blockage of serotonin receptors in the chemoreceptor trigger zone. It does not have much effect on vomiting due to motion sickness. This drug does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.
Tiagabine is an anti-convulsive medication. It is also used in the treatment for panic disorder as are a few other anticonvulsants. Though the exact mechanism by which tiagabine exerts its effect on the human body is unknown, it does appear to operate as a selective GABA reuptake inhibitor.
An alkaloid ester extracted from the leaves of plants including coca. It is a local anesthetic and vasoconstrictor and is clinically used for that purpose, particularly in the eye, ear, nose, and throat. It also has powerful central nervous system effects similar to the amphetamines and is a drug of abuse. Cocaine, like amphetamines, acts by multiple mechanisms on brain catecholaminergic neurons; the mechanism of its reinforcing effects is thought to involve inhibition of dopamine uptake. [PubChem]
Zonisamide is a sulfonamide anticonvulsant approved for use as an adjunctive therapy in adults with partial-onset seizures. Zonisamide may be a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor although this is not one of the primary mechanisms of action. Zonisamide may act by blocking repetitive firing of voltage-gated sodium channels leading to a reduction of T-type calcium channel currents, or by binding allosterically to GABA receptors. This latter action may inhibit the uptake of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA while enhancing the uptake of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.
Anileridine is a synthetic opioid and strong analgesic medication. It is a narcotic pain reliever used to treat moderate to severe pain. Narcotic analgesics act in the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain. Some of their side effects are also caused by actions in the CNS.
Almotriptan is a triptan drug for the treatment of migraine headaches. Almotriptan is in a class of medications called selective serotonin receptor agonists. It works by narrowing blood vessels in the brain, stopping pain signals from being sent to the brain, and stopping the release of certain natural substances that cause pain, nausea, and other symptoms of migraine. Almotriptan does not prevent migraine attacks.
Buprenorphine is a derivative of the opioid alkaloid thebaine that is a more potent (25 - 40 times) and longer lasting analgesic than morphine. It appears to act as a partial agonist at mu and kappa opioid receptors and as an antagonist at delta receptors. The lack of delta-agonist activity has been suggested to account for the observation that buprenorphine tolerance may not develop with chronic use. [PubChem]
Mesoridazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine antipsychotic with effects similar to chlorpromazine. [PubChem]Based upon animal studies, mesoridazine, as with other phenothiazines, acts indirectly on reticular formation, whereby neuronal activity into reticular formation is reduced without affecting its intrinsic ability to activate the cerebral cortex. In addition, the phenothiazines exhibit at least part of their activities through depression of hypothalamic centers. Neurochemically, the phenothiazines are thought to exert their effects by a central adrenergic blocking action.
Maprotiline is a tetracyclic antidepressant with similar pharmacological properties to tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Similar to TCAs, maprotiline inhibits neuronal norepinephrine reuptake, possesses some anticholinergic activity, and does not affect monoamine oxidase activity. It differs from TCAs in that it does not appear to block serotonin reuptake. Maprotiline may be used to treat depressive affective disorders, including dysthymic disorder (depressive neurosis) and major depressive disorder. Maprotiline is effective at reducing symptoms of anxiety associated with depression.
Diethylpropion is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a appetite depressant considered to produce less central nervous system disturbance than most drugs in this therapeutic category. It is also considered to be among the safest for patients with hypertension. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p2290)Diethylpropion is an amphetamine that stimulates neurons to release or maintain high levels of a particular group of neurotransmitters known as catecholamines; these include dopamine and norepinephrine. High levels of these catecholamines tend to suppress hunger signals and appetite. Diethylpropion (through catecholamine elevation) may also indirectly affect leptin levels in the brain. It is theorized that diethylpropion can raise levels of leptin which signal satiety. It is also theorized that increased levels of the catecholamines are partially responsible for halting another chemical messenger known as neuropeptide Y. This peptide initiates eating, decreases energy expenditure, and increases fat storage.
Felbamate is an anticonvulsant drug used in the treatment of epilepsy. It is used to treat partial seizures (with and without generalization) in adults and partial and generalized seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in children. It has a weak inhibitory effect on GABA receptor binding sites.
Fexofenadine is an antihistamine drug used in the treatment of hayfever and similar allergy symptoms. It was developed as a successor of and alternative to terfenadine, an antihistamine with potentially fatal contraindications. Fexofenadine, like other second-generation antihistamines, does not readily enter the brain from the blood, and so causes less drowsiness than first generation histamine receptor antagonists; Fexofenadine hydrochloride (brand names include Allegra and Telfast) is an antihistamine drug used in the treatment of hayfever and similar allergy symptoms. It was developed as a successor of and alternative to terfenadine, an antihistamine with potentially fatal contraindications. Fexofenadine, like other second generation antihistamines, does not readily enter the brain from the blood, and so causes less drowsiness than first-generation histamine-receptor antagonists.
Naratriptan is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triptan drug used for the treatment of migraine headaches. It is a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine1 receptor subtype agonist.Three distinct pharmacological actions have been implicated in the antimigraine effect of the triptans: (1) stimulation of presynaptic 5-HT1D receptors, which serves to inhibit both dural vasodilation and inflammation; (2) direct inhibition of trigeminal nuclei cell excitability via 5-HT1B/1D receptor agonism in the brainstem and (3) vasoconstriction of meningeal, dural, cerebral or pial vessels as a result of vascular 5-HT1B receptor agonism.
Rizatriptan is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triptan drug used for the treatment of migraine headaches. It is a selective 5-hydroxytryptamine1 receptor subtype agonist.Three distinct pharmacological actions have been implicated in the antimigraine effect of the triptans: (1) stimulation of presynaptic 5-HT1D receptors, which serves to inhibit both dural vasodilation and inflammation; (2) direct inhibition of trigeminal nuclei cell excitability via 5-HT1B/1D receptor agonism in the brainstem and (3) vasoconstriction of meningeal, dural, cerebral or pial vessels as a result of vascular 5-HT1B receptor agonism.
Hydrocodone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic related to codeine, but more potent and more addicting by weight. It is used also as cough suppressant. [PubChem]Hydrocodone acts as a weak agonist at OP1, OP2, and OP3 opiate receptors within the central nervous system (CNS). Hydrocodone primarily affects OP3 receptors, which are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as modulators, both positive and negative, of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine, and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids such as hydrocodone also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin, and glucagon. Opioids close N-type voltage-operated calcium channels (OP2-receptor agonist) and open calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (OP3 and OP1 receptor agonist). This results in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
A local anesthetic that is chemically related to bupivacaine but pharmacologically related to lidocaine. It is indicated for infiltration, nerve block, and epidural anesthesia. Mepivacaine is effective topically only in large doses and therefore should not be used by this route. (From AMA Drug Evaluations, 1994, p168)
A component of neomycin that is produced by Streptomyces fradiae. On hydrolysis it yields neamine and neobiosamine B. (From Merck Index, 11th ed). Neomycin is a bactericidal aminoglycoside antibiotic that binds to the 30S ribosome of susceptible organisms. Binding interferes with mRNA binding and acceptor tRNA sites and results in the production of non-functional or toxic peptides.
Gabapentin was originally developed as a chemical analogue of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to reduce the spinal reflex for the treatment of spasticity and was found to have anticonvulsant activity in various seizure models. In addition, it also displays antinociceptive activity in various animal pain models. Clinically, gabapentin is indicated as an add-on medication for the treatment of partial seizures, and neuropathic pain. It was also claimed to be beneficial in several other clinical disorders such as anxiety, bipolar disorder, and hot flashes. The possible mechanisms or targets involved in the multiple therapeutic actions of gabapentin have been actively studied. Since gabapentin was developed, several hypotheses had been proposed for its action mechanisms. They include selectively activating the heterodimeric GABA(B) receptors consisting of GABA(B1a) and GABA(B2) subunits, selectively enhancing the NMDA current at GABAergic interneurons, or blocking AMPA-receptor-mediated transmission in the spinal cord, binding to the L-alpha-amino acid transporter, activating ATP-sensitive K(+) channels, activating hyperpolarization-activated cation channels, and modulating Ca(2+) current by selectively binding to the specific binding site of [(3)H]gabapentin, the alpha(2)delta subunit of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels. Different mechanisms might be involved in different therapeutic actions of gabapentin. In this review, we summarized the recent progress in the findings proposed for the antinociceptive action mechanisms of gabapentin and suggest that the alpha(2)delta subunit of spinal N-type Ca(2+) channels is very likely the analgesic action target of gabapentin. (A7831).
Doxorubicin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is antineoplastic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces peucetius. It is a hydroxy derivative of daunorubicin. [PubChem]Doxorubicin has antimitotic and cytotoxic activity through a number of proposed mechanisms of action: Doxorubicin forms complexes with DNA by intercalation between base pairs, and it inhibits topoisomerase II activity by stabilizing the DNA-topoisomerase II complex, preventing the religation portion of the ligation-religation reaction that topoisomerase II catalyzes.
Frovatriptan (Frova&#8482;) is a triptan drug developed by Vernalis for the treatment of migraine headaches, in particular those associated with menstruation. The product is licensed to Endo Pharmaceuticals in North America and Menarini in Europe.[1] Frovatriptan causes vasoconstriction of arteries and veins that supply blood to the head. It is available as 2.5 mg tablets.

Frovatriptan has mean terminal elimination half-life of approximately 26 hours, which is substantially longer than other triptans.

Frovatriptan is available only by prescription in the United States, where a secondary New Drug Approval (sNDA) was filed in July 2006[2] and which is currently pending.[3] The FDA anticipates completing its review of this application on or before the current PDUFA (Prescription Drug User Fee Act) review date of August 19, 2007. If the sNDA is approved, Frova&#8482; will be the only medication indicated in the U.S. for the short-term prevention of menstrual migraine (MM).
Levobupivacaine is an amino-amide local anaesthetic drug belonging to the family of n-alkylsubstituted pipecoloxylidide. It is the S-enantiomer of bupivacaine. Levobupivacaine hydrochloride is commonly marketed by AstraZeneca under the trade name Chirocaine. Compared to bupivacaine, levobupivacaine is associated with less vasodilation and has a longer duration of action. It is approximately 13 per cent less potent (by molarity) than racemic bupivacaine.Levobupivacaine is indicated for local anaesthesia including infiltration, nerve block, ophthalmic, epidural and intrathecal anaesthesia in adults; and infiltration analgesia in children. Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) are rare when it is administered correctly. Most ADRs relate to administration technique (resulting in systemic exposure) or pharmacological effects of anesthesia, however allergic reactions can rarely occur. [Wikipedia]
Tioconazole is an antifungal medication of the Imidazole class used to treat infections caused by a fungus or yeast. Tioconazole topical (skin) preparations are also available for ringworm, jock itch, athlete's foot, and tinea versicolor or "sun fungus". Tioconazole interacts with 14-alpha demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme that converts lanosterol to ergosterol, an essential component of the yeast membrane. In this way, tioconazole inhibits ergosterol synthesis, resulting in increased cellular permeability.
Balsalazide is an anti-inflammatory drug used in the treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease. It is sold under the name "Colazal" in the US and "Colazide" in the UK.

The chemical name is (E)-5-[[-4-(2-carboxyethyl) aminocarbonyl] phenyl]azo] -2-hydroxybenzoic acid. It is usually administered as the disodium salt.

Balsalazide releases mesalazine, also known as 5-aminosalicylic acid, or 5-ASA, in the large intestine. Its advantage over that drug in the treatment of Ulcerative colitis is believed to be the delivery of the active agent past the small intestine to the large intestine, the active site of ulcerative colitis.
Bethanechol is a synthetic ester structurally and pharmacologically related to acetylcholine. A slowly hydrolyzed muscarinic agonist with no nicotinic effects, bethanechol is generally used to increase smooth muscle tone, as in the GI tract following abdominal surgery or in urinary retention in the absence of obstruction. It may cause hypotension, cardiac rate changes, and bronchial spasms. [PubChem]
Phylloquinone is often called vitamin K1. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that is stable to air and moisture but decomposes in sunlight. It is found naturally in a wide variety of green plants. Phylloquinone is also an antidote for coumatetralyl. Vitamin K is needed for the posttranslational modification of certain proteins, mostly required for blood coagulation.
Mycophenolic acid is an an immunosuppresant drug and potent anti-proliferative, and can be used in place of the older anti-proliferative azathioprine. It is usually used as part of triple therapy including a calcineurin inhibitor (ciclosporin or tacrolimus) and prednisolone. It is also useful in research for the selection of animal cells that express the E. coli gene coding for XGPRT (xanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase).
Ketoconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antifungal agent used for long periods at high doses, especially in immunosuppressed patients. [PubChem]Ketoconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary for the conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol. This results in inhibition of ergosterol synthesis and increased fungal cellular permeability. Other mechanisms may involve the inhibition of endogenous respiration, interaction with membrane phospholipids, inhibition of yeast transformation to mycelial forms, inhibition of purine uptake, and impairment of triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis. Ketoconazole can also inhibit the synthesis of thromboxane and sterols such as aldosterone, cortisol, and testosterone.
An inhalation anesthetic. Currently, methoxyflurane is rarely used for surgical, obstetric, or dental anesthesia. If so employed, it should be administered with nitrous oxide to achieve a relatively light level of anesthesia, and a neuromuscular blocking agent given concurrently to obtain the desired degree of muscular relaxation. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p180)
Ethinamate is a short-acting sedative-hypnotic medication used to treat insomnia. Regular use leads to tolerance, and it is usually not effective for more than 7 days. Structurally, it does not resemble the barbituates, but it shares many effects with this class of drugs; the depressant effects of ethinamate are, however, generally milder than those of most barbiturates.
Cerulenin is an antifungal antibiotic that inhibits sterol and fatty acid biosynthesis. In fatty acid synthesis, reported to bind in equimolar ratio to b-keto-acyl-ACP synthase. In sterol synthesis, inhibits HMG-CoA synthetase activity. It is also shown to inhibit feeding and induce dramatic weight loss in mice. It is found naturally in the Cephalosporium caerulensfungus. [Wikipedia]
A selective, irreversible inhibitor of Type B monoamine oxidase. It is used in newly diagnosed patients with Parkinson's disease. It may slow progression of the clinical disease and delay the requirement for levodopa therapy. It also may be given with levodopa upon onset of disability. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p385) The compound without isomeric designation is Deprenyl. [PubChem]
Carphenazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antipsychotic drug, used in hospitalized patients in the management of chronic schizophrenic psychoses.A yellow, powdered, phenothiazine antipsychotic agent used in the treatment of acute or chronic schizophrenia. The term phenothiazines is used to describe the largest of the five main classes of neuroleptic antipsychotic drugs. These drugs have antipsychotic and, often, antiemetic properties, although they may also cause severe side effects such as akathisia, tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal symptoms. Carphenazine blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors in the brain; depresses the release of hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones and is believed to depress the reticular activating system thus affecting basal metabolism, body temperature, wakefulness, vasomotor tone, and emesis.
Memantine is an amantadine derivative with low to moderate-affinity for NMDA receptors. It is a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that binds preferentially to NMDA receptor-operated cation channels. It  blocks the effects of excessive levels of glutamate that may lead to neuronal dysfunction. It is under investigation for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, but there has been no clinical support for the prevention or slowing of disease progression.
Gatifloxacin is an antibiotic of the fourth-generation fluoroquinolone family, that like other members of that family, inhibits the bacterial enzymes DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. Bristol-Myers Squibb introduced Gatifloxacin in 1999 under the proprietary name Tequin&#8482; for the treatment of respiratory tract infections, having licensed the medication from Kyorin Pharmaceutical Company of Japan. Allergan produces an eye-drop formulation called Zymar&#8482;. Gatifloxacin is available as tablets and in various aqueous solutions for intravenous therapy. [Wikipedia]
A semisynthetic antibiotic produced from Streptomyces mediterranei. It has a broad antibacterial spectrum, including activity against several forms of Mycobacterium. In susceptible organisms it inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity by forming a stable complex with the enzyme. It thus suppresses the initiation of RNA synthesis. Rifampin is bactericidal, and acts on both intracellular and extracellular organisms. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman&#39;s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1160)
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) widely marketed under various trademarks including Act-3, Advil, Brufen, Motrin, Nuprin, and Nurofen. It is used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea, and fever; Ibuprofen is an NSAID which is believed to work through inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX), thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis. There are at least 2 variations of cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2), ibuprofen inhibits both COX-1 and COX-2. It appears that its analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity are achieved principally through COX-2 inhibition; whereas COX-1 inhibition is responsible for its unwanted effects on platelet aggregation and the GI mucosa. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen inhibits platelet aggregation, but is not used therapeutically for this action since it is a minor and reversible effect. -- Wikipedia.
Melatonin is a biogenic amine that is found in animals, plants and microbes. Aaron B. Lerner of Yale University is credited for naming the hormone and for defining its chemical structure in 1958.  In mammals, melatonin is produced by the pineal gland. The pineal gland is small endocrine gland, about the size of a rice grain and shaped like a pine cone (hence the name), that is located in the center of the brain (rostro-dorsal to the superior colliculus) but outside the blood-brain barrier. The secretion of melatonin increases in darkness and decreases during exposure to light, thereby regulating the circadian rhythms of several biological functions, including the sleep-wake cycle. In particular, melatonin regulates the sleep-wake cycle by chemically causing drowsiness and lowering the body temperature.  Melatonin is also implicated in the regulation of mood, learning and memory, immune activity, dreaming, fertility and reproduction. Melatonin is also an effective antioxidant.  Most of the actions of melatonin are mediated through the binding and activation of melatonin receptors. Individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) may have lower than normal levels of melatonin. A 2008 study found that unaffected parents of individuals with ASD also have lower melatonin levels, and that the deficits were associated with low activity of the ASMT gene, which encodes the last enzyme of melatonin synthesis. Reduced melatonin production has also been proposed as a likely factor in the significantly higher cancer rates in night workers.
An anticonvulsant used for several types of seizures, including myotonic or atonic seizures, photosensitive epilepsy, and absence seizures, although tolerance may develop. It is seldom effective in generalized tonic-clonic or partial seizures. The mechanism of action appears to involve the enhancement of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor responses. [PubChem]
Dihydrotachysterol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a vitamin D that can be regarded as a reduction product of vitamin D2. [PubChem]Once hydroxylated to 25-hydroxydihydrotachysterol, the modified drug binds to the vitamin D receptor. The bound form of the vitamin D receptor serves as a transcriptional regulator of bone matrix proteins, inducing the expression of osteocalcin and suppressing synthesis of type I collagen. Vitamin D (when bound to the vitamin D receptor)stimulates the expression of a number of proteins involved in transporting calcium from the lumen of the intestine, across the epithelial cells and into blood. This stimulates intestinal calcium absorption and increases renal phosphate excretion. These are functions that are normally carried out by the parathyroid hormone.
Perhexiline is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a coronary vasodilator used especially for angina of effort. It may cause neuropathy and hepatitis. [PubChem]Perhexiline binds to the mitochondrial enzyme carnitine palmitoyltransferase (CPT)-1 and CPT-2. It acts by shifting myocardial substrate utilisation from long chain fatty acids to carbohydrates through inhibition of CPT-1 and, to a lesser extent, CPT-2, resulting in increased glucose and lactate utilization. This results in increased ATP production for the same O2 consumption as before and consequently increases myocardial efficiency.
Vigabatrin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an analogue of gamma-aminobutyric acid. It is an irreversible inhibitor of 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, the enzyme responsible for the catabolism of gamma-aminobutyric acid. (From Martindale The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 31st ed)It is believed that vigabatrin increases brain concentrations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS, by irreversibly inhibiting enzymes that catabolize GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid transaminase GABA-T) or block the reuptake of GABA into glia and nerve endings. Vigabatrin may also work by suppressing repetitive neuronal firing through inhibition of voltage-sensitive sodium channels.
A meperidine congener used as an antidiarrheal, usually in combination with atropine. At high doses, it acts like morphine. Its unesterified metabolite difenoxin has similar properties and is used similarly. It has little or no analgesic activity. This medication is classified as a Schedule V under the Controlled Substances Act by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the DEA in the United States when used in preparations. When diphenoxylate is used alone, it is classified as a Schedule II.
Pilocarpine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a slowly hydrolyzed muscarinic agonist with no nicotinic effects. Pilocarpine is used as a miotic and in the treatment of glaucoma. [PubChem]Pilocarpine is a cholinergic parasympathomimetic agent. It increase secretion by the exocrine glands, and produces contraction of the iris sphincter muscle and ciliary muscle (when given topically to the eyes) by mainly stimulating muscarinic receptors.
Benzocaine is a surface anesthetic that acts by preventing transmission of impulses along nerve fibers and at nerve endings. Benzocaine is a local anesthetic commonly used as a topical pain reliever. It is the active ingredient in many over-the-counter analgesic ointments. Benzocaine is an ester, a compound made from the organic acid PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid) and ethanol. The process in which this ester is created is known as Fischer esterification.
Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a key dipolar aprotic solvent. It is less toxic than other members of this class: dimethylformamide, dimethylacetamide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, HMPA. Dimethyl sulfoxide is the chemical compound (CH3)2SO. This colorless liquid is an important dipolar aprotic solvent. It is readily miscible in a wide range of organic solvents as well as water. It has a distinctive property of penetrating the skin very readily, allowing the handler to taste it. Some describe it as an oyster-like taste, others claim it tastes like garlic. DMSO is also employed as a rinsing agent in the electronics industry and, in its deuterated form (DMSO-d6), is a useful solvent in NMR due to its ability to dissolve a wide range of chemical compounds and its minimal interference with the sample signals. In cryobiology DMSO has been used as a cryoprotectant and is still an important constituent of cryoprotectant vitrification mixtures used to preserve organs, tissues, and cell suspensions. It is particularly important in the freezing and long-term storage of embryonic stem cells and hematopoietic stem cell, which are often frozen in a mixture of 10% DMSO and 90% fetal calf serum. As part of an autologous bone marrow transplant the DMSO is re-infused along with the patient's own hematopoietic stem cell. Dimethyl sulfoxide is a by-product of wood pulping. One of the leading suppliers of DMSO is the Gaylord company in the USA. DMSO is frequently used as solvent in a number of chemical reactions. In particular it is an excellent reaction solvent for SN2 alkylations: it is possible to alkylate indoles with very high yields using potassium hydroxide as the base and a similar reaction also occurs with phenols. DMSO can be reacted with methyl iodide to form a sulfoxonium ion which can be reacted with sodium hydride to form a sulfur ylide. The methyl groups of DMSO are somewhat acidic in character (pKa=35) due to the stabilization of the resultant anions by the sulfoxide group.
Flucytosine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a fluorinated cytosine analog that is used as an antifungal agent. [PubChem]Although the exact mode of action is unknown, it has been proposed that flucytosine acts directly on fungal organisms by competitive inhibition of purine and pyrimidine uptake and indirectly by intracellular metabolism to 5-fluorouracil. Flucytosine enters the fungal cell via cytosine permease; thus, flucytosine is metabolized to 5-fluorouracil within fungal organisms. The 5-fluorouracil is extensively incorporated into fungal RNA and inhibits synthesis of both DNA and RNA. The result is unbalanced growth and death of the fungal organism. It also appears to be an inhibitor of fungal thymidylate synthase.
A diphenylbutylpiperidine that is effective as an antipsychotic agent and as an alternative to haloperidol for the suppression of vocal and motor tics in patients with Tourette syndrome. Although the precise mechanism of action is unknown, blockade of postsynaptic dopamine receptors has been postulated. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p403)
Sertraline hydrochloride belongs to a class of antidepressant agents known as selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Despite distinct structural differences between compounds in this class, SSRIs possess similar pharmacological activity. As with other antidepressant agents, several weeks of therapy may be required before a clinical effect is seen. SSRIs are potent inhibitors of neuronal serotonin reuptake. They have little to no effect on norepinephrine or dopamine reuptake and do not antagonize &alpha;- or &beta;-adrenergic, dopamine D<sub>2</sub> or histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors. During acute use, SSRIs block serotonin reuptake and increase serotonin stimulation of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. Chronic use leads to desensitization of somatodendritic 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> and terminal autoreceptors. The overall clinical effect of increased mood and decreased anxiety is thought to be due to adaptive changes in neuronal function that leads to enhanced serotonergic neurotransmission. Side effects include dry mouth, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, sexual dysfunction and headache (see Toxicity section below for a more detailed listing of side effects). Compared to other agents in this class, sertraline may cause greater diarrheal and male sexual dysfunction effects. Side effects generally occur within the first two weeks of therapy and are usually less severe and frequent than those observed with tricyclic antidepressants. Sertraline may be used to treat major depressive disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) and social anxiety disorder (social phobia).
Sibutramine (trade name Meridia in the USA, Reductil in Europe and other countries), usually as sibutramide hydrochloride monohydrate, is an orally administered agent for the treatment of obesity. It is a centrally acting stimulant chemically related to amphetamines. Sibutramine is classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance in the United States. In October 2010, Sibutramine was withdrawn from Canadian and U.S. markets due to concerns that the drug increases the risk of heart attack and stroke in patients with a history of heart disease.
Methyprylon is a sedative of the piperidinedione derivative family. This medicine was used for treating insomnia, but is now rarely used as it has been replaced by newer drugs with less side effects, such as benzodiazepines. Methyprylon was withdrawn from the US market in June 1965 and the Canadian market in September 1990. [Wikipedia]
Miconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an imidazole antifungal agent that is used topically and by intravenous infusion. [PubChem] Miconazole interacts with 14-&alpha; demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Miconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Chlorpheniramine is a histamine H1 antagonist used in allergic reactions, hay fever, rhinitis, urticaria, and asthma. It has also been used in veterinary applications. One of the most widely used of the classical antihistaminics, it generally causes less drowsiness and sedation than Promethazine. -- Pubchem; Chlorphenamine or chlorpheniramine, commonly marketed as its salt chlorphenamine maleate (Chlor- Trimeton, Piriton, Chlor- Tripolon), is a first generation antihistamine used in the prevention of the symptoms of allergic conditions such as rhinitis and urticaria.- wikipedia.
Phenacemide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is used to control certain seizures in the treatment of epilepsy. This medicine acts on the central nervous system (CNS) to reduce the number and severity of seizures.Phenacemide binds to and blocks neuronal sodium channels or voltage sensitive calcium channels. This blocks or suppresses neuronal depolarization and hypersynchronization. Hypersynchronization is what often causes seizures.
Ambenonium is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor used in the management of myasthenia gravis. [Wikipedia] Ambenonium exerts its actions against myasthenia gravis by competitive, reversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. The disease myasthenia gravis occurs when the body inappropriately produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, and thus inhibits proper acetylcholine signal transmission (when acetylcholine binds to acetylcholine receptors of striated muscle fibers, it stimulates those fibers to contract). Ambenonium reversibly binds acetylcholinesterase at the anionic site, which results in the blockage of the site of acetycholine binding, thereby inhibiting acetylcholine hydrolysis and enhancing cholinergic function through the accumulation of acetycholine at cholinergic synpases. In turn this facilitates transmission of impulses across the myoneural junction and effectively treats the disease.
Econazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad spectrum antimycotic with some action against Gram positive bacteria. It is used topically in dermatomycoses also orally and parenterally. [PubChem] Econazole interacts with 14-alpha demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Econazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Doxepin hydrochloride is a dibenzoxepin-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, doxepin does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, doxepin exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as doxepin and amitriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. Doxepin has less sedative and anticholinergic effects than amitriptyline. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Doxepin may be used to treat depression and insomnia. Unlabeled indications include chronic and neuropathic pain, and anxiety. Doxepin may also be used as a second line agent to treat idiopathic urticaria.
Nefazodone hydrochloride (trade name Serzone) is an antidepressant drug marketed by Bristol-Myers Squibb. Its sale was discontinued in 2003 in some countries, due to the small possibility of hepatic (liver) injury, which could lead to the need for a liver transplant, or even death. The incidence of severe liver damage is approximately 1 in 250,000 to 300,000 patient-years. On May 20, 2004, Bristol-Myers Squibb discontinued the sale of Serzone in the United States. [Wikipedia]
Desipramine hydrochloride is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, desipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, desipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Secondary amine TCAs, such as desipramine and nortriptyline, are more potent inhibitors of norepinephrine reuptake than tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline and doxepine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Desipramine exerts less anticholinergic and sedative side effects compared to tertiary amine TCAs, such as amitriptyline and clomipramine. Desipramine may be used to treat depression, neuropathic pain (unlabeled use), agitation and insomnia (unlabeled use) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (unlabeled use).
Sertaconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Sertaconazole nitrate is an antifungal medication of the imidazole class. It is available as a cream to treat skin infections such as athlete's foot. [Wikipedia] Sertaconazole interacts with 14-alpha demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Sertaconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4- nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. A unicyclic, aminoketone antidepressant. The mechanism of its therapeutic actions is not well understood, but it does appear to block dopamine uptake. The hydrochloride is available as an aid to smoking cessation treatment; Bupropion is a selective catecholamine (norepinephrine and dopamine) reuptake inhibitor. It has only a small effect on serotonin reuptake. It does not inhibit MAO. The antidepressant effect of bupropion is considered to be mediated by its dopaminergic and noradrenergic action. Bupropion has also been shown to act as a competitive alpha-3-beta-4-nicotinic antagonist, the alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism has been shown to interrupt addiction in studies of other drugs such as ibogaine. This alpha-3-beta-4-antagonism correlates quite well with the observed effect of interrupting addiction. Bupropion (amfebutamone) (brand names Wellbutrin and Zyban) is an antidepressant of the aminoketone class, chemically unrelated to tricyclics or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is similar in structure to the stimulant cathinone, and to phenethylamines in general. It is a chemical derivative of diethylpropion, an amphetamine-like substance used as an anorectic. Bupropion is both a dopamine reuptake inhibitor and a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. It is often used as a smoking cessation aid.
A nonclassical folic acid inhibitor through its inhibition of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase. It is being tested for efficacy as an antineoplastic agent and as an antiparasitic agent against pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS patients. Myelosuppression is its dose-limiting toxic effect. [PubChem]
A nonflammable, halogenated, hydrocarbon anesthetic that provides relatively rapid induction with little or no excitement. Analgesia may not be adequate. nitrous oxide is often given concomitantly. Because halothane may not produce sufficient muscle relaxation, supplemental neuromuscular blocking agents may be required. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p178)
Chloroprocaine hydrochloride is a local anesthetic given by injection during surgical procedures and labor and delivery. Chloroprocaine, like other local anesthetics, blocks the generation and the conduction of nerve impulses, presumably by increasing the threshold for electrical excitation in the nerve, by slowing the propagation of the nerve impulse and by reducing the rate of rise of the action potential.
Moclobemide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) selective for isoform A (RIMA) used to treat major depressive disorder. The mechanism of action of moclobemide involves the selective, reversible inhibition of MAO-A. This inhibition leads to a decrease in the metabolism and destruction of monoamines in the neurotransmitters. This results in an increase in the monoamines, relieving depressive symptoms.
Orphenadrine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a muscarinic antagonist used to treat drug-induced parkinsonism and to relieve pain from muscle spasm. [PubChem] Orphenadrine binds and inhibits both histamine H1 receptors and NMDA receptors. It restores the motor disturbances induced by neuroleptics, in particular the hyperkinesia. The dopamine deficiency in the striatum increases the stimulating effects of the cholinergic system. This stimulation is counteracted by the anticholinergic effect of orphenadrine. It may have a relaxing effect on skeletal muscle spasms and it has a mood elevating effect.
Phenobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant. It promotes binding to inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid subtype receptors, and modulates chloride currents through receptor channels. It also inhibits glutamate induced depolarizations. [PubChem] Phenobarbital acts on GABAA receptors, increasing synaptic inhibition. This has the effect of elevating seizure threshold and reducing the spread of seizure activity from a seizure focus. Phenobarbital may also inhibit calcium channels, resulting in a decrease in excitatory transmitter release. The sedative-hypnotic effects of phenobarbital are likely the result of its effect on the polysynaptic midbrain reticular formation, which controls CNS arousal.
Chlormezanone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a non-benzodiazepine that is used in the management of anxiety. It has been suggested for use in the treatment of muscle spasm. [PubChem]Chlormezanone binds to central benzodiazepine receptors which interact allosterically with GABA receptors. This potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, increasing the inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system and blocking the cortical and limbic arousal that occurs following stimulation of the reticular pathways.
Fluoxymesterone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anabolic steroid that has been used in the treatment of male hypogonadism, delayed puberty in males, and in the treatment of breast neoplasms in women. [PubChem] Fluoxymesterone is a synthetic androgenic anabolic steroid and is approximately 5 times as potent as natural methyltestosterone. Like testosterone and other androgenic hormones, fluoxymesterone binds to the androgen receptor. It produces retention of nitrogen, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus; increases protein anabolism; decreases amino acid catabolism and decreased urinary excretion of calcium. The antitumour activity of fluoxymesterone appears related to reduction or competitive inhibition of prolactin receptors or estrogen receptors or production.
Pergolide is a long-acting dopamine agonist approved in 1982 for the treatment of Parkinson's Disease. It is an ergot derivative that acts on the dopamine D2 and D3, alpha2- and alpha1-adrenergic, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors. It was indicated as adjunct therapy with levodopa/carbidopa in the symptomatic treatment of parkinsonian syndrome. It was later found that pergolide increased the risk of cardiac valvulopathy. The drug was withdrawn from the US market in March 2007 and from the Canadian market in August 2007.
Ciclopirox is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic antifungal agent for topical dermatologic use. [Wikipedia] Unlike antifungals such as itraconazole and terbinafine, which affect sterol synthesis, ciclopirox is thought to act through the chelation of polyvalent metal cations, such as Fe<sup>3+</sup> and Al<sup>3+</sup>. These cations inhibit many enzymes, including cytochromes, thus disrupting cellular activities such as mitochondrial electron transport processes and energy production. Ciclopirox also appears to modify the plasma membrane of fungi, resulting in the disorganization of internal structures. The anti-inflammatory action of ciclopirox is most likely due to inhibition of 5-lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase. Ciclopirox may exert its effect by disrupting DNA repair, cell division signals and structures (mitotic spindles) as well as some elements of intracellular transport.
Desflurane is a highly fluorinated methyl ethyl ether used for maintenance of general anaesthesia. Volatile agents such as desflurane may activate GABA channels and hyperpolarize cell membranes. In addition, they may inhibit certain calcium channels and therefore prevent release of neurotransmitters and inhibit glutamate channels. Volatile anesthetics easily partition into cellular membranes and could expand the volume of the cell membrane and subsequently distort channels necessary for sodium ion flux and the development of action potentials necessary for synaptic transmission. Desflurane preconditions human myocardium against ischemia through activation of mitochondrial K(ATP) channels, adenosine A1 receptor, and alpha and beta adrenoceptors.
Dexfenfluramine, also marketed under the name Redux, is a serotoninergic anorectic drug. It was for some years in the mid-1990s approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration for the purposes of weight loss. However, following multiple concerns about the cardiovascular side-effects of the drug, such approval was withdrawn.
An opioid analgesic with actions and uses similar to those of morphine, apart from an absence of cough suppressant activity. It is used in the treatment of moderate to severe pain, including pain in obstetrics. It may also be used as an adjunct to anesthesia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1092)
Zopiclone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a novel hypnotic agent used in the treatment of insomnia. Its mechanism of action is based on modulating benzodiazepine receptors. In addition to zopiclone's benzodiazepine pharmacological properties it also has some barbiturate like properties. Zopiclone exerts its action by binding on the benzodiazepine receptor complex and modulation of the GABA<sub>B</sub>Z receptor chloride channel macromolecular complex. Both zopiclone and benzodiazepines act indiscriminately at the benzodiazepine binding site on &#945;1, &#945;2, &#945;3 and &#945;5 GABA<sub>A</sub> containing receptors as full agonists causing an enhancement of the inhibitory actions of GABA to produce the therapeutic (hypnotic and anxiolytic) and adverse effects of zopiclone.
Bromocriptine mesylate is a semisynthetic ergot alkaloid derivative with potent dopaminergic activity. It is indicated for the management of signs and symptoms of Parkinsonian Syndrome. Bromocriptine also inhibits prolactin secretion and may be used to treat dysfunctions associated with hyperprolactinemia. It also causes sustained suppression of somatotropin (growth hormone) secretion in some patients with acromegaly. Bromocriptine has been associated with pulmonary fibrosis.
Rifapentine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibiotic drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Rifapentine has shown higher bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities especially against intracellular bacteria growing in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Rifapentine inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase in susceptible strains of M. tuberculosis. Rifapentine acts via the inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, leading to a suppression of RNA synthesis and cell death.
Levetiracetam is an anticonvulsant medication used to treat epilepsy. Levetiracetam may selectively prevent hypersynchronization of epileptiform burst firing and propagation of seizure activity. Levetiracetam binds to the synaptic vesicle protein SV2A, which is thought to be involved in the regulation of vesicle exocytosis. Although the molecular significance of levetiracetam binding to synaptic vesicle protein SV2A is not understood, levetiracetam and related analogs showed a rank order of affinity for SV2A which correlated with the potency of their antiseizure activity in audiogenic seizure-prone mice.
Mitoxantrone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anthracenedione-derived antineoplastic agent. Mitoxantrone, a DNA-reactive agent that intercalates into deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) through hydrogen bonding, causes crosslinks and strand breaks. Mitoxantrone also interferes with ribonucleic acid (RNA) and is a potent inhibitor of topoisomerase II, an enzyme responsible for uncoiling and repairing damaged DNA. It has a cytocidal effect on both proliferating and nonproliferating cultured human cells, suggesting lack of cell cycle phase specificity.
Ridogrel is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a dual action drug useful for the prevention of systemic thrombo-embolism and as an adjunctive agent to thrombolytic therapy in acute myocardial infarction. However, there currently are no clinical indications for preferential use of ridogrel over aspirin.Ridogrel inhibits thromboxane A2 synthase and also blocks the thromboxane A2/prostaglandin endoperoxide receptors. Thromboxane synthetase produces thromboxane in platelets. Thromboxane is a vasoconstrictor and facilitates the clumping of platelets. Therefore by inhibiting the production and promotion of thromboxane, thrombolysis is enhanced.
Estazolam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine with anticonvulsant, hypnotic, and muscle relaxant properties. It has been shown in some cases to be more potent than diazepam or nitrazepam. [PubChem] Benzodiazepines bind nonspecifically to benzodiazepine receptors, which affects affects muscle relaxation, anticonvulsant activity, motor coordination, and memory. As benzodiazepine receptors are thought to be coupled to gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA<sub>A</sub>) receptors, this enhances the effects GABA by increasing GABA affinity for the GABA receptor. Binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the site opens the chloride channel, resulting in a hyperpolarized cell membrane that prevents further excitation of the cell.
Ketamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cyclohexanone derivative used for induction of anesthesia. Its mechanism of action is not well understood, but ketamine can block NMDA receptors (receptors, N-methyl-D-aspartate) and may interact with sigma receptors. [PubChem] Ketamine has several clinically useful properties, including analgesia and less cardiorespiratory depressant effects than other anaesthetic agents, it also causes some stimulation of the cardiocascular system. Ketamine has been reported to produce general as well as local anaesthesia. It interacts with N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, opioid receptors, monoaminergic receptors, muscarinic receptors and voltage sensitive Ca ion channels. Unlike other general anaesthetic agents, ketamine does not interact with GABA receptors.
Levomethadyl Acetate is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a narcotic analgesic with a long onset and duration of action. It is used mainly in the treatment of narcotic dependence. [PubChem] Opiate receptors (Mu, Kappa, Delta) are coupled with G-protein receptors and function as both positive and negative regulators of synaptic transmission via G-proteins that activate effector proteins. Binding of the opiate stimulates the exchange of GTP for GDP on the G-protein complex. As the effector system is adenylate cyclase and cAMP located at the inner surface of the plasma membrane, opioids decrease intracellular cAMP by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. Subsequently, the release of nociceptive neurotransmitters such as substance P, GABA, dopamine, acetylcholine and noradrenaline is inhibited. Opioids also inhibit the release of vasopressin, somatostatin, insulin and glucagon. Levomethadyl acetate effectively opens calcium-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium channels (OP1 receptor agonist), resulting in hyperpolarization and reduced neuronal excitability.
L-Dopa is used for the treatment of Parkinsonian disorders and Dopa-Responsive Dystonia and is usually given with agents that inhibit its conversion to dopamine outside of the central nervous system. Peripheral tissue conversion may be the mechanism of the adverse effects of levodopa. It is standard clinical practice to co-administer a peripheral DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor - carbidopa or benserazide - and often a catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) inhibitor, to prevent synthesis of dopamine in peripheral tissue.
The naturally occurring form of dihydroxyphenylalanine and the immediate precursor of dopamine. Unlike dopamine itself, it can be taken orally and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It is rapidly taken up by dopaminergic neurons and converted to dopamine. It is used for the treatment of parkinsonian disorders and is usually given with agents that inhibit its conversion to dopamine outside of the central nervous system. [PubChem]

L-Dopa is the naturally occurring form of dihydroxyphenylalanine and the immediate precursor of dopamine. Unlike dopamine itself, L-Dopa can be taken orally and crosses the blood-brain barrier. It is rapidly taken up by dopaminergic neurons and converted to dopamine. In particular, it is metabolized to dopamine by aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase. Pyridoxal phosphate (vitamin B6) is a required cofactor for this decarboxylation, and may be administered along with levodopa, usually as pyridoxine.
Sevoflurane is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Sevoflurane (2,2,2-trifluoro-1-[trifluoromethyl]ethyl fluoromethyl ether), also called fluoromethyl, is a sweet-smelling, non-flammable, highly fluorinated methyl isopropyl ether used for induction and maintenance of general anesthesia. Together with desflurane, it is replacing isoflurane and halothane in modern anesthesiology. [Wikipedia] Sevoflurane induces a reduction in junctional conductance by decreasing gap junction channel opening times and increasing gap junction channel closing times. Sevoflurane also activates calcium dependent ATPase in the sarcoplasmic reticulum by increasing the fluidity of the lipid membrane. It also appears to bind the D subunit of ATP synthase and NADH dehydogenase and also binds to the GABA receptor, the large conductance Ca<sup>2+</sup> activated potassium channel, the glutamate receptor, and the glycine receptor.
Bromodiphenhydramine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an ethanolamine antihistamine with antimicrobial property. Bromodiphenhydramine is used in the control of cutaneous allergies. Ethanolamine antihistamines produce marked sedation in most patients. Bromodiphenhydramine competes with free histamine for binding at HA-receptor sites. This antagonizes the effects of histamine on HA-receptors, leading to a reduction of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine HA-receptor binding.
Chlorprothixene is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a typical antipsychotic drug of the thioxanthene (tricyclic) class. Chlorprothixene exerts strong blocking effects by blocking the 5-HT2 D1, D2, D3, histamine H1, muscarinic and alpha1 adrenergic receptors. Chlorprothixene blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2 receptors in the brain; depresses the release of hypothalamic and hypophyseal hormones and is believed to depress the reticular activating system thus affecting basal metabolism, body temperature, wakefulness, vasomotor tone, and emesis.
Clomipramine, the 3-chloro analog of imipramine, is a dibenzazepine-derivative tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). TCAs are structurally similar to phenothiazines. They contain a tricyclic ring system with an alkyl amine substituent on the central ring. In non-depressed individuals, clomipramine does not affect mood or arousal, but may cause sedation. In depressed individuals, clomipramine exerts a positive effect on mood. TCAs are potent inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake. Tertiary amine TCAs, such as clomipramine, are more potent inhibitors of serotonin reuptake than secondary amine TCAs, such as nortriptyline and desipramine. TCAs also down-regulate cerebral cortical &beta;-adrenergic receptors and sensitize post-synaptic serotonergic receptors with chronic use. The antidepressant effects of TCAs are thought to be due to an overall increase in serotonergic neurotransmission. TCAs also block histamine-H<sub>1</sub> receptors, &alpha;<sub>1</sub>-adrenergic receptors and muscarinic receptors, which accounts for their sedative, hypotensive and anticholinergic effects (e.g. blurred vision, dry mouth, constipation, urinary retention), respectively. See toxicity section below for a complete listing of side effects. Clomipramine may be used to treat obsessive-compulsive disorder and disorders with an obsessive-compulsive component (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, Tourette's disorder). Unlabeled indications include panic disorder, chronic pain (e.g. central pain, idiopathic pain disorder, tension headache, diabetic peripheral neuropathy, neuropathic pain), cataplexy and associated narcolepsy, autistic disorder, trichotillomania, onchophagia, stuttering, premature ejaculation, and premenstrual syndrome. Clomipramine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and demethylated in the liver to its primary active metabolite, desmethylclomipramine.
Isocarboxazid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an MAO inhibitor that is effective in the treatment of major depression, dysthymic disorder, and atypical depression. It also is useful in the treatment of panic disorder and the phobic disorders. (From AMA, Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p311). Isocarboxazid works by irreversibly blocking the action of a chemical substance known as monoamine oxidase (MAO) in the nervous system. MAO subtypes A and B are involved in the metabolism of serotonin and catecholamine neurotransmitters such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine. Isocarboxazid, as a nonselective MAO inhibitor, binds irreversibly to monoamine oxidase&ndash;A (MAO-A) and monoamine oxidase&ndash;B (MAO-B). The reduced MAO activity results in an increased concentration of these neurotransmitters in storage sites throughout the central nervous system (CNS) and sympathetic nervous system. This increased availability of one or more monoamines is the basis for the antidepressant activity of MAO inhibitors.
Posaconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a triazole antifungal drug that is used to treat invasive infections by Candida species and Aspergillus species in severely immunocompromised patients.As a triazole antifungal agent, posaconazole exerts its antifungal activity through blockage of the cytochrome P-450 dependent enzyme, sterol 14alpha-demethylase, in fungi by binding to the heme cofactor located on the enzyme. This leads to the inhibition of the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane, and accumulation of methylated sterol precursors. This results in inhibition of fungal cell growth and ultimately, cell death.
Fosphenytoin is a water-soluble phenytoin prodrug used only in hospitals for the treatment of epileptic seizures. It works by slowing down impulses in the brain that cause seizures. Its main mechanism is to block frequency-dependent, use-dependent and voltage-dependent neuronal sodium channels, and therefore limit repetitive firing of action potentials.
Butethal is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sedative and a hypnotic drug.Butethal binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore at the GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl<sup>-</sup> ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged. All of these effects are associated with marked decreases in GABA-sensitive neuronal calcium conductance (gCa). The net result of barbiturate action is acute potentiation of inhibitory GABAergic tone. Barbiturates also act through potent (if less well characterized) and direct inhibition of excitatory AMPA-type glutamate receptors, resulting in a profound suppression of glutamatergic neurotransmission.
Hexobarbital is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a barbiturate that is effective as a hypnotic and sedative. [PubChem]Hexobarbital binds at a distinct binding site associated with a Cl- ionopore at the GABA-A receptor, increasing the duration of time for which the Cl- ionopore is open. The post-synaptic inhibitory effect of GABA in the thalamus is, therefore, prolonged.
Ephedrine is only found in individuals who have consumed this drug. Ephedrine is an alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonist that may also enhance release of norepinephrine. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including asthma, heart failure, rhinitis, and urinary incontinence, and for its central nervous system stimulatory effects in the treatment of narcolepsy and depression. It has become less extensively used with the advent of more selective agonists. [PubChem] Ephedrine is similar in molecular structure to the well-known drugs phenylpropanolamine and methamphetamine, as well as to the important neurotransmitter epinephrine (adrenalin). Chemically, it is an alkaloid with a phenethylamine skeleton found in various plants in the genus Ephedra (family Ephedraceae). It works mainly by increasing the activity of norepinephrine (noradrenalin) on adrenergic receptors. It is most usually marketed as the hydrochloride or sulfate salt.
Methotrimeprazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a phenothiazine with pharmacological activity similar to that of both chlorpromazine and promethazine. It has the histamine-antagonist properties of the antihistamines together with central nervous system effects resembling those of chlorpromazine. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p604). Methotrimeprazine's antipsychotic effect is largely due to its antagonism of dopamine receptors in the brain. In addition, its binding to 5HT2 receptors may also play a role.
Fencamfamine (Glucoenergan, Reactivan) is a stimulant which was developed in the 1960s as an appetite suppressant, but was later withdrawn for this application due to problems with dependence and abuse. It is around half the potency of dexamphetamine, and is prescribed at a dose of 10-60mg, although abusers of the drug tend to rapidly develop tolerance and escalate their dose. Reactivan is still rarely used for treating depressive day-time fatigue, lack of concentration and lethargy, particularly in individuals who have chronic medical conditions, as its favourable safety profile makes it the most suitable drug in some cases. [Wikipedia]
A benzodiazepine with pharmacologic actions similar to those of diazepam that can cause anterograde amnesia. Some reports indicate that it is used as a date rape drug and suggest that it may precipitate violent behavior. The United States Government has banned the importation of this drug. [PubChem]
Bromazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the benzodiazepines that is used in the treatment of anxiety disorders. [PubChem] It is a Schedule IV drug in the U.S. and Canada and under the Convention on Psychotropic Substances.Bromazepam binds to the GABA receptor GABA<sub>A</sub>, causing a conformational change and increasing inhibitory effects of GABA. Other neurotransmitters are not influenced.
Clotiazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine derivative, not approved for sale in the U.S. or Canada, but has been approved in the U.K. It is a schedule IV drug in Canada.Clotiazepam acts at the benzodiazepine receptors (BZD). This agonizes the action of GABA, increasing the frequency of opening of the channel chlorinates and penetration of the ions chlorinates through the ionophore. Increase in membrane polarization decreases the probability of discharge of neurons.
Dextroamphetamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is the dextrorotary stereoisomer of the amphetamine molecule, which can take two different forms. It is a slightly polar, weak base and is lipophilic. The exact mechanism of action is not known. Dextroamphetamine stimulates the release of norepinephrine from central adrenergic receptors. At higher dosages, it causes release of dopamine from the mesocorticolimbic system and the nigrostriatal dopamine systems by reversal of the monoamine transporters. Dextroamphetamine may also act as a direct agonist on central 5-HT receptors and may inhibit monoamine oxidase (MAO). In the periphery, amphetamines are believed to cause the release of noradrenaline by acting on the adrenergic nerve terminals and alpha- and beta-receptors. Modulation of serotonergic pathways may contribute to the calming affect.
Methamphetamine is a psychostimulant and sympathomimetic drug. It is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. Methamphetamine can induce effects such as euphoria, increased alertness and energy, and enhanced self-esteem. It is a scheduled drug in most countries due to its high potential for addiction and abuse.
Prazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine that is used in the treatment of anxiety disorders. It is a schedule IV drug in the U.S. Prazepam is believed to stimulate GABA receptors in the ascending reticular activating system. Since GABA is inhibitory, receptor stimulation increases inhibition and blocks both cortical and limbic arousal following stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation.
Quazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It induces impairment of motor function and has hypnotic properties. Quazepam is used to treat insomnia.Benzodiazepines bind nonspecifically to benzodiazepine receptors, which affects muscle relaxation, anticonvulsant activity, motor coordination, and memory. As benzodiazepine receptors are thought to be coupled to gamma-aminobutyric acid-A (GABA<sub>A</sub>) receptors, this enhances the effects of GABA by increasing GABA affinity for the GABA receptor. Binding of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA to the site opens the chloride channel, resulting in a hyperpolarized cell membrane that prevents further excitation of the cell.
Cinolazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Cinolazepam is not approved for sale in the United States or Canada.Cinolazepam binds to central benzodiazepine receptors which interact allosterically with GABA receptors. This potentiates the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, increasing the inhibition of the ascending reticular activating system and blocking the cortical and limbic arousal that occurs following stimulation of the reticular pathways.
Nitrazepam is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzodiazepine derivative used as an anticonvulsant and hypnotic. Nitrazepam belongs to a group of medicines called benzodiazepines. It acts on benzodiazepine receptors in the brain which are associated with the GABA receptors causing an enhanced binding of GABA (gamma amino butyric acid) to GABAA receptors. GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, involved in inducing sleepiness, muscular relaxation and control of anxiety and fits, and slows down the central nervous system. The anticonvulsant properties of nitrazepam and other benzodiazepines may be in part or entirely due to binding to voltage-dependent sodium channels rather than benzodiazepine receptors. Sustained repetitive firing seems to be limited by benzodiazepines effect of slowing recovery of sodium channels from inactivation.
Phenindamine is an antihistamine. Phenindamine blocks the effects of the naturally occurring chemical histamine in your body. Antihistamines such as phenindamine appear to compete with histamine for histamine H1- receptor sites on effector cells. The antihistamines antagonize those pharmacological effects of histamine which are mediated through activation of H1- receptor sites and thereby reduce the intensity of allergic reactions and tissue injury response involving histamine release.  It is used to treat sneezing, runny nose, itching, watery eyes, hives, rashes, itching, and other symptoms of allergies and the common cold.
Symptoms of a phenindamine overdose include extreme sleepiness, confusion, weakness, ringing in the ears, blurred vision, large pupils, dry mouth, flushing, fever, shaking, insomnia, hallucinations, and possibly seizures.
Calcipotriol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic derivative of calcitriol or Vitamin D.The precise mechanism of calcipotriol in remitting psoriasis is not well-understood. However, it has been shown to have comparable affinity with calcitriol for the Vitamin D receptor, while being less than 1% as active as the calcitriol in regulating calcium metabolism. The Vitamin D receptor (VDR) belongs to the steroid/thyroid receptor superfamily, and is found on the cells of many different tissues including the thyroid, bone, kindney, and T cells of the immune system. T cells are known to play a role in psoriasis, and it is thought that the binding of calcipotriol to the VDR modulates the T cells gene transcription of cell differentiation and proliferation related genes.
Quinestrol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a 3-cyclopentyl ether of ethinyl estradiol. Estrogens diffuse into their target cells and interact with a protein receptor (the estrogen receptor). Estrogen interacts with a target cell receptor. When the estrogen receptor has bound its ligand it can enter the nucleus of the target cell, and regulate gene transcription which leads to formation of messenger RNA. The mRNA interacts with ribosomes to produce specific proteins that express the effect of estradiol upon the target cell. Estrogens increase the hepatic synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), thyroid-binding globulin (TBG), and other serum proteins and suppress follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary. Target cells include the female reproductive tract, the mammary gland, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary. Estrogens increase the hepatic synthesis of sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), thyroid-binding globulin (TBG), and other serum proteins and suppress follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary. The combination of an estrogen with a progestin suppresses the hypothalamic-pituitary system, decreasing the secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
Chlophedianol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a centrally-acting cough suppressant available in Canada under the trade name Ulone. It is not available in the United States. Chlophedianol suppresses the cough reflex by a direct effect on the cough center in the medulla of the brain.
Bepotastine is a non-sedating, selective antagonist of the histamine 1 (H1) receptor. Bepotastine was approved in Japan for use in the treatment of allergic rhinitis and uriticaria/puritus in July 2000 and January 2002, respectively, and is marketed by Tanabe Seiyaku Co., Ltd. under the brand name Talion. It is available in oral and opthalmic dosage forms in Japan. The opthalmic solution is FDA approved since Sept 8, 2009 and is under the brand name Bepreve.
Vapreotide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic octapeptide somatostatin analog. It was being studied for the treatment of cancer.The exact mechanism of action is unknown, although one study has provided in vitro and in vivo evidence for a tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist effect in the analgesic effects of vapreotide (A2442).
Silver sulfadiazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a sulfa derivative topical antibacterial used primarily on second- and third-degree burns. [Wikipedia] Studies utilizing radioactive micronized silver sulfadiazine, electron microscopy, and biochemical techniques have revealed that the mechanism of action of silver sulfadiazine on bacteria differs from silver nitrate and sodium sulfadiazine. Silver sulfadiazine acts only on the cell membrane and cell wall to produce its bactericidal effect. A specific mechanism of action has not been determined, but silver sulfadiazine's effectiveness may possibly be from a synergistic interaction, or the action of each component. Silver is a biocide, which binds to a broad range of targets. Silver ions bind to nucleophilic amino acids, as well as sulfhydryl, amino, imidazole, phosphate, and carboxyl groups in proteins, causing protein denaturation and enzyme inhibition. Silver binds to surface membranes and proteins, causing proton leaks in the membrane, leading to cell death. Sulfadiazine is a competitive inhibitor of bacterial para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), a substrate of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase. The inhibited reaction is necessary in these organisms for the synthesis of folic acid.
Methsuximide is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an anticonvulsant medication. It is sold by Pfizer under the name Petinutin. [Wikipedia] Binds to T-type voltage sensitive calcium channels. Voltage-sensitive calcium channels (VSCC) mediate the entry of calcium ions into excitable cells and are also involved in a variety of calcium-dependent processes, including muscle contraction, hormone or neurotransmitter release, gene expression, cell motility, cell division and cell death. The isoform alpha-1G gives rise to T-type calcium currents. T-type calcium channels belong to the low-voltage activated (LVA) group and are strongly blocked by mibefradil. A particularity of this type of channels is an opening at quite negative potentials and a voltage-dependent inactivation. T-type channels serve pacemaking functions in both central neurons and cardiac nodal cells and support calcium signaling in secretory cells and vascular smooth muscle. They may also be involved in the modulation of firing patterns of neurons which is important for information processing as well as in cell growth processes.
Anisatin is a plant toxin found in the Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum). The Japanese star anise has been burned as incense in Japan, where it is known as shikimi, as well as used in topical folk remedies. (L1226)
Brucine is a plant toxin found in several species, most notably the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.). Medically, brucine is primarily used in the regulation of high blood pressure and other comparatively benign cardiac ailments. (L1227)
Cicutoxin is a plant toxin found in several species, most notably water hemlock (Cicuta species). It is a cholinergic poison, causing death by disruption of the central nervous system. (L1232)
Delphinine is a plant toxin found in species of Larkspur (Delphinium family). It is related in structure and has similar effects to aconitine, acting as an allosteric modulator of voltage gated sodium channels, and producing hypotension, bradycardia and cardiac arrhythmia. It is highly poisonous, but in very small doses it has some uses in herbal medicine. (L1234)
Aconitine is a plant toxin found in species of wolfsbane (Aconitum genus). It is a neurotoxin previously used as an antipyretic and analgesic, and still has some limited application in herbal medicine. (L1235). The toxic effects of Aconitine have been tested in a variety of different test animals, including mammals (dog, cat, guinea pig, mouse, rat and rabbit), frogs and pigeons. Depending on the route of exposure, the observed toxic effects were: local anesthetic effect, diarrhea, convulsions, arrhythmias or death. According to a review of different reports of aconite poisoning in humans the following clinical features were observed: Neurological, Cardiovascular, Ventricular arrhythmias, Gastrointestinal.
Djenkolic acid is a plant toxin found in the beans of the South-East Asian legumes jengkol (Archidendron jiringa). It is nephrotoxic to humans. (L1236)
(-)-Gossypol is found in fats and oils. (-)-Gossypol is a constituent of Gossypium hirsutum (cotton).

(-)-gossypol has been shown to exhibit anti-tumor, anti-cancer and anti-proliferative functions (A7832, A7833, A7834).
Methylamino-L-alanine,КBMAA, is a non-proteinogenic amino acid produced by cyanobacteria. It is a plant toxin found in the seeds of the cycad (division <i>Cycadophyta</i>). It is produced by cyanobacteria of the genus <i>Nostoc</i> that live on the plant's roots and exibits neurotoxic effects. Acutely, BMAA can act as an excitotoxin on glutamate receptors such as NMDA, calcium dependent AMPA and kainite receptors. The activation of the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 is believed to induce oxidative stress in the neuron by depletion of glutathione. BMAA is also suggested to misincorporate into nascent proteins in place of L-Serine, possibly causing protein misfolding and aggregation, both hallmarks of tangle diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and ALS, PSP and Lewy Body Disease. In-vitro research has shown that protein association of L-BMAA can be inhibited in presence of excess L-Serine. (Wikipedia)
Oenanthotoxin is a plant toxin found in hemlock water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata) and other plants of the genus Oenanthe. It is a central nervous system poison and acts as a non-competitive gamma-aminobutyric acid antagonist. (L1243)
Resiniferatoxin (RTX) is a plant toxin and ultrapotent capsaicin analog that occurs in various species of plants, such as resin spurge (Euphorbia resinifera). It evokes a powerful irritant effect followed by desensitization and analgesia. (L1244)
Strychnine is a plant toxin most commonly found in the seeds of the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica L.). It is used as a pesticide, particularly for killing small vertebrates such as birds and rodents. Strychnine causes muscular convulsions and eventually death through asphyxia or sheer exhaustion. (L1230)
Swainsonine is a plant toxin found in locoweed (families Fabaceae, Oxytropis, Astragalus and Swainsona) and some fungi (Metarhizium anisopliae, Rizoctonia leguminicola). It has been known to cause a potentially lethal central nervous system condition in livestock known as locoism and is a significant cause of economic losses in livestock industries. Along with slaframine, the other biologially active compound of R. leguminicola, it may contribute to a condition called "slobbers syndrome" in livestock that has ingested contaminated feed. (L1248, A3092)
Tutin is a plant toxin found in the tutu plant (genus Coriaria). It has powerful convulsant effects. (L1250)
Grayanotoxins are toxins found in rhododendrons and other plants of the family Ericaceae. It can be found in honey made from their nectar and cause a very rare poisonous reaction called grayanotoxin poisoning, honey intoxication, or rhododendron poisoning. (L1251)
Grayanotoxins are toxins found in rhododendrons and other plants of the family Ericaceae. It can be found in honey made from their nectar and cause a very rare poisonous reaction called grayanotoxin poisoning, honey intoxication, or rhododendron poisoning. (L1251)
Grayanotoxins are toxins found in rhododendrons and other plants of the family Ericaceae. It can be found in honey made from their nectar and cause a very rare poisonous reaction called grayanotoxin poisoning, honey intoxication, or rhododendron poisoning. (L1251)
Oleandrin is a plant toxin found in Oleander (Nerium oleander). It causes both gastrointestinal and cardiac effects. (L1253)
Hyoscyamine is a chemical compound, a tropane alkaloid it is the levo-isomer to atropine. It is a secondary metabolite of some plants, particularly henbane (Hyoscamus niger.)
Hyoscyamine is used to provide symptomatic relief to various gastrointestinal disorders including spasms, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, pancreatitis, colic and cystitis. It has also been used to relieve some heart problems, control some of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, as well as for control of respiratory secretions in end of life care.
Hyoscyamine is a plant toxin found in certain plants of the Solanaceae family, including henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), mandrake (Mandragora officinarum), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium), and deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). It is used as a drug to provide symptomatic relief to various gastrointestinal disorders including spasms, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome, pancreatitis, colic and cystitis. It has also been used to relieve some heart problems, control some of the symptoms of Parkinson's disease, as well as for control of respiratory secretions in palliative care.(L1255)
Tubocurarine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a neuromuscular blocker and active ingredient in curare; plant based alkaloid of Menispermaceae. [PubChem]Tubocurarine, the chief alkaloid in tobacco products, binds stereo-selectively to nicotinic-cholinergic receptors at the autonomic ganglia, in the adrenal medulla, at neuromuscular junctions, and in the brain. Two types of central nervous system effects are believed to be the basis of Tubocurarine's positively reinforcing properties. A stimulating effect is exerted mainly in the cortex via the locus ceruleus and a reward effect is exerted in the limbic system. At low doses the stimulant effects predominate while at high doses the reward effects predominate. Intermittent intravenous administration of Tubocurarine activates neurohormonal pathways, releasing acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, vasopressin, beta-endorphin, growth hormone, and ACTH.
Alcuronium is a type of curare, a plant toxin known for its use as paralyzing arrow poison by South American indigenous people. It can be extracted from a variety of plants, including Strychnos toxifera and Chondrodendron tomentosum. Curares are active only by an injection. They are harmless if taken orally because curare compounds are too large and too highly charged to pass through the lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. (L1256)
Toxiferine is a type of curare, a plant toxin known for its use as paralyzing arrow poison by South American indigenous people. It can be extracted from a variety of plants, including Strychnos toxifera and Chondrodendron tomentosum. Curares are active only by an injection. They are harmless if taken orally because curare compounds are too large and too highly charged to pass through the lining of the digestive tract to be absorbed into the blood. (L1256)
Brodifacoum is a highly lethal anticoagulant poison derived from coumarin. It is typically used as a rodenticide but is also used to control larger mammalian pests. (L1257)
Bromadiolone is a potent anticoagulant and rodenticide. It is a second-generation coumarin derivative, often called a "super-warfarin" for its added potency and tendency to accumulate in the liver of the poisoned organism. (L1258)
Fumarin is an anticoagulant and rodenticide derived from coumarin. (L1252)
Difenacoum is an anticoagulant and rodenticide derived from coumarin. (A365)
Phenprocoumon is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a coumarin derivative that acts as a long acting oral anticoagulant. [PubChem] Phenprocoumon inhibits vitamin K reductase, resulting in depletion of the reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin KH2). As vitamin K is a cofactor for the carboxylation of glutamate residues on the N-terminal regions of vitamin K-dependent proteins, this limits the gamma-carboxylation and subsequent activation of the vitamin K-dependent coagulant proteins. The synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X and anticoagulant proteins C and S is inhibited. Depression of three of the four vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors (factors II, VII, and X) results in decreased prothrombin levels and a decrease in the amount of thrombin generated and bound to fibrin. This reduces the thrombogenicity of clots.
Acenocoumarol is a coumarin derivative used as an anticoagulant. Coumarin derivatives inhibit the reduction of vitamin K by vitamin K reductase. This prevents carboxylation of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, II, VII, XI and X, and interferes with coagulation. Hematocrit, hemoglobin, international normalized ratio and liver panel should be monitored. Patients on acenocoumarol are prohibited from giving blood.
Phenindione is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an indandione that has been used as an anticoagulant. Phenindione has actions similar to warfarin, but it is now rarely employed because of its higher incidence of severe adverse effects. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p234). Phenindione inhibits vitamin K reductase, resulting in depletion of the reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin KH2). As vitamin K is a cofactor for the carboxylation of glutamate residues on the N-terminal regions of vitamin K-dependent proteins, this limits the gamma-carboxylation and subsequent activation of the vitamin K-dependent coagulant proteins. The synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X and anticoagulant proteins C and S is inhibited. Depression of three of the four vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors (factors II, VII, and X) results in decreased prothrombin levels and a decrease in the amount of thrombin generated and bound to fibrin. This reduces the thrombogenicity of clots.
Anabasine is a nicotinic receptor agonist toxin and Cholinesterase inhibitor which acts upon the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Anabasine is an unstable yellow liquid which is succeptable to light, heat and moisture. It's decomposition products include Nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and gases and carbon dioxide. Anabasine is a pyridine alkaloid found in the stem of the (Nicotiana glauca) plant, a close relative of (Nicotiana tabacum) the common tobacco plant. Anabasine is a metabolite of nicotine which can be used as an indicator of a person's exposure to tobbacco smoke. A piperidine botanical insecticide.
Myristicin is found in anise. Myristicin is a constituent of dill, nutmeg, parsley and many other essential oils. May be responsible for psychotic effects of nutmeg at large doses Myristicin, 3-methoxy,4,5-methylendioxy-allylbenzene, is a natural organic compound present in the essential oil of nutmeg and to a lesser extent in other spices such as parsley and dill. Myristicin is a naturally occurring insecticide and acaricide with possible neurotoxic effects on dopaminergic neurons[citation needed]. It has hallucinogenic properties at doses much higher than used in cooking. Myristicin is a weak inhibitor of monoamine oxidase.

Myristicin has been shown to exhibit apoptotic and hepatoprotective functions (A7836, A7837).

Myristicin belongs to the family of Benzodioxoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene ring fused to either isomers of dioxole.
4-Ethylphenol is found in arabica coffee. 4-Ethylphenol (4-EP) is a phenolic compound produced in wine and beer by the spoilage yeast Brettanomyces. (Wikipedia) 

4-Ethylphenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
7-Methyl-3-methylene-1,6-octadiene is found in allspice. 7-Methyl-3-methylene-1,6-octadiene is found in many essential oils, e.g. hop oil. 7-Methyl-3-methylene-1,6-octadiene is a flavouring agent.
Bleaching agent for flour. Diazenedicarboxamide belongs to the family of Azo Compounds. These are derivatives ofA diazene(diimide), HN=NH, wherein both hydrogens are substituted by hydrocarbyl groups, e.g. PhN=NPhA azobenzeneA or diphenyldiazene.
Benzyl acetate is found in alcoholic beverages. Benzyl acetate occurs in jasmine, apple, cherry, guava fruit and peel, wine grape, white wine, tea, plum, cooked rice, Bourbon vanilla, naranjila fruit (Solanum quitoense), Chinese cabbage and quince. Benzyl acetate is a flavouring agent Benzyl acetate is an organic compound with the molecular formula C9H10O2. It is the ester formed by condensation of benzyl alcohol and acetic acid. It is one of many compounds that is attractive to males of various species of orchid bees, who apparently gather the chemical to synthesize pheromones; it is commonly used as bait to attract and collect these bees for study.

Benzyl acetate belongs to the family of Benzyloxycarbonyls. These are organic compounds containing a carbonyl group substituted with a benzyloxyl group.
Ethyl acrylate is found in pineapple. Ethyl acrylate is a flavouring ingredient Although there are some reports claiming that ethyl acrylate is a carcinogen, major respected bodies regard the evidence of human carcinogenicity as weak and/or inconsistent. The International Agency for Research on Cancer stated, Overall evaluation, Ethyl acrylate is possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states, Human studies on occupational exposure to ethyl acrylate&hellip; have suggested a relationship between exposure to the chemical(s) and colorectal cancer, but the evidence is conflicting and inconclusive. In a study by the National Toxicology Program (NTP), increased incidences of squamous cell papillomas and carcinomas of the forestomach were observed in rats and mice exposed via gavage (experimentally placing the chemical in the stomach). However, the NTP recently determined that these data were not relevant to human carcinogenicity and removed ethyl acrylate from its list of carcinogens. (Occupational exposure generally involves exposure that occurs regularly, over an extended period of time). Ethyl acrylate is an organic compound primarily used in the preparation of various polymers. It is a clear liquid with an acrid penetrating odor. The human nose is capable of detecting this odor at a thousand times lower concentration then is considered harmful if continuously exposed for some period of time.
Menthol is an alcohol produced from mint oils or prepared synthetically. Menthol is a covalent organic compound made synthetically or obtained from peppermint or other mint oils. It is a waxy, crystalline substance, clear or white in color, which is solid at room temperature and melts slightly above. The main form of menthol occurring in nature is (-)-menthol, which is assigned the (1R,2S,5R) configuration. Menthol has local anesthetic and counterirritant qualities, and it is widely used to relieve minor throat irritation.
2-Methoxy-4-propylphenol is a flavouring ingredient

2-Methoxy-4-propylphenol belongs to the family of Methoxyphenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a methoxy group attached to the benzene ring of a phenol moiety.
2-Propenyl 3-methylbutanoate is a flavouring ingredient.
Cholesteryl decanoate is an ester of cholesterol. Fatty acid esters of cholesterol constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol) and a lipid found in the cell membranes of all body tissues, and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima (the innermost layer of an artery, in direct contact with the flowing blood) is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a disease affecting arterial blood vessels. It is a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries, in large part to the deposition of lipoproteins (plasma proteins that carry cholesterol and triglycerides). Cholesteryl esters, formed by the esterification of cholesterol with long-chain fatty acids, on one hand, are the means by which cholesterol is transported through the blood by lipoproteins, on the other, the way cholesterol itself can be accumulated in the cells. (A7838).
Diacetyl is a natural by-product of secondary or malolactic fermentation. It is a vicinal diketone (two C=O groups, side-by-side) with the molecular formula C4H6O2. Carrier of aroma of butter, vinegar, coffee, and other foods. Beer sometimes undergoes a diacetyl rest, which entails waiting two or three days after fermentation is complete, to allow the yeast to absorb the diacetyl it produced earlier in the fermentation cycle. The makers of some wines, such as chardonnay, deliberately promote the production of diacetyl because of the feel and flavors it imparts.
Acetic acid is one of the simplest carboxylic acids. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical that is used in the production of plastic soft drink bottles, photographic film; and polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, as well as many synthetic fibres and fabrics. Acetic acid can be very corrosive, depending on the concentration. It is one ingredient of cigarette. In households diluted acetic acid is often used as a cleaning agent. In the food industry acetic acid is used as an acidity regulator. The acetyl group, derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to the biochemistry of virtually all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. However, the concentration of free acetic acid in cells is kept at a low level to avoid disrupting the control of the pH of the cell contents. Acetic acid is produced and excreted by certain bacteria, notably the Acetobacter genus and Clostridium acetobutylicum. These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs, water, and soil, and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and some other foods spoil. Acetic acid is also a component of the vaginal lubrication of humans and other primates, where it appears to serve as a mild antibacterial agent.
n-Butane is a hydrocarbon and one of two isomers of butane. Butanes are highly flammable, colorless, odorless, easily liquefied gases. They are components of gasoline and can also be used as refrigerants and propellants in aerosol sprays. Butane gas is sold bottled as a fuel for cooking and camping and is also found in cigarette lighters. Butane is a simple asphyxiant and commonly used substance of abuse that is responsible for a large number of "solvent related" deaths. (L1283, L1284)
Isobutane is a hydrocarbon and one of two isomers of butane. Butanes are highly flammable, colorless, odorless, easily liquefied gases. They are components of gasoline and can also be used as refrigerants and propellants in aerosol sprays. Butane gas is sold bottled as a fuel for cooking and camping and is also found in cigarette lighters. Butane is a simple asphyxiant and commonly used substance of abuse that is responsible for a large number of "solvent related" deaths. (L1283, L1284)
Pentane is found in alcoholic beverages. Pentane is present in hop oil.Pentane is any or one of the organic compounds with the formula C5H12. This alkane is a component of some fuels and is employed as a specialty solvent in the laboratory. Its properties are very similar to those of butane and hexane. It exists in three structural isomers, the branched isomers are called isopentane and neopentane. Pentane is one of the primary blowing agents used in the production of polystyrene foam.

Pentane has been shown to exhibit radical scavenger function (A7839).

Pentane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2.
Isopentane is a hydrocarbon and one of three isomers of pentane. Pentanes are components of some fuels, such as gasoline, and are also used as specialty solvents in the laboratory. (L1287)
Neopentane is a hydrocarbon and one of three isomers of pentane. Pentanes are components of some fuels, such as gasoline, and are also used as specialty solvents in the laboratory. (L1287)
N-Heptane is found in cardamom. Heptane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)8CH3. Heptane has 9 isomers, or 11 if enantiomers are counted. (Wikipedia) 

N-Heptane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2.
2-Methylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
3-Methylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
2,2-Dimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
2,3-Dimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
2,4-Dimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
3,3-Dimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
3-Ethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
2,2,3-Trimethylbutane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of heptane. Heptanes may be found in gasoline and are widely used as solvents. They are also sold as fuel for outdoor stoves. (L1289)
Octane is an alkane with the chemical formula C8H18. It has 18 isomers. One of the isomers, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane or isooctane, is of major importance, as it has been selected as the 100 point on the octane rating scale, with n-heptane as the zero point. Octane ratings are ratings used to represent the anti-knock performance of petroleum-based fuels (octane is less likely to prematurely combust under pressure than heptane), given as the percentage of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in an 2,2,4-trimethylpentane / n-heptane mixture that would have the same performance. It is an important constituent of gasoline.
2-Methylheptane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
3-Methylheptane is found in herbs and spices. 3-Methylheptane is a constituent of Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Jasminum sambac (Arabian jasmine) and other plant species 3-Methylheptane is a branched alkane isomeric to octane. Its structural formula is CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH2CH2CH2CH3. It has one stereocenter.

3-Methylheptane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2.
4-Methylheptane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
3-Ethylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,2-Dimethylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
xi-2,3-Dimethylhexane is found in fruits. xi-2,3-Dimethylhexane is a volatile component of starfruit.
2,4-Dimethylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,5-Dimethylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
3,3-Dimethylhexane is found in herbs and spices. 3,3-Dimethylhexane is a constituent of the oil of Osmanthus fragrans (sweet osmanthus) and ginseng.

3,3-Dimethylhexane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2.
3,4-Dimethylhexane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
3-Ethyl-2-methylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,2,3-Trimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,3,3-Trimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,3,4-Trimethylpentane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
2,2,3,3-Tetramethylbutane is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of octane. Octanes may be found in gasoline. (L1296)
1-Pentene is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of pentene. Pentenes are components of gasoline and are often produced as by-products of catalytic of thermal cracking of petroleum. (L1287)
2-Pentene is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of pentene. Pentenes are components of gasoline and are often produced as by-products of catalytic of thermal cracking of petroleum. (L1287)
2-Methyl-2-butene is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of pentene. Pentenes are components of gasoline and are often produced as by-products of catalytic of thermal cracking of petroleum. (L1287)
3-Methyl-1-butene is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of pentene. Pentenes are components of gasoline and are often produced as by-products of catalytic of thermal cracking of petroleum. (L1287)
2-Methyl-1-butene is a hydrocarbon and one of the isomers of pentene. Pentenes are components of gasoline and are often produced as by-products of catalytic of thermal cracking of petroleum. (L1287)
3-Methyl-2-pentene is a hydrocarbon and component of gasoline.
2,4,4,-Trimethyl-1-pentene is a hydrocarbon and component of gasoline.
Cyclopentane is a cyclic hydrocarbon. It is a component of gasoline and is used in the manufacture of synthetic resins and rubber adhesives, and also as a blowing agent in the manufacture of polyurethane insulating foam. (L1298)
Methylcyclopentane is isolated from Helianthus annuus (sunflower) 

Methylcyclopentane belongs to the family of Cycloalkanes. These are alkanes containing one or more rings of carbon atoms.
Cyclohexane is found in kohlrabi. Diluent in colour additive mixtures for food use

Cyclohexane has been shown to exhibit beta-oxidant, anti-nociceptive and antibiotic functions (A7840, A7841, A7842).

Cyclohexane belongs to the family of Cycloalkanes. These are alkanes containing one or more rings of carbon atoms.
Isopropylbenzene is found in ceylan cinnamon. Isopropylbenzene is a trace constituent of ginger oil (Zingiber officinale) Cumene is the common name for isopropylbenzene, an organic compound that is an aromatic hydrocarbon. It is a constituent of crude oil and refined fuels. It is a flammable colorless liquid that has a boiling point of 152 C. Nearly all the cumene that is produced as a pure compound on an industrial scale is converted to cumene hydroperoxide, which is an intermediate in the synthesis of other industrially important chemicals such as phenol and acetone.

Isopropylbenzene has been shown to exhibit catabolic function (A7843).
Polyvinyl acetate is a rubbery synthetic polymer. It is a component of glue and is used mainly as an adhesive for porous materials, particularly  for wood, paper, and cloth. While polyvinyl acetate itself is not considered hazardous, it usually contains trace amounts of its precursor, vinyl acetate, which is toxic. (L1301, L1302)
Polyvinyl acetate is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]).

Ethenyl acetate belongs to the family of Carboxylic Acid Esters. These are carboxylic acid derivatives in which the carbo atom from the carbonyl group is atached to an alkyl or oaryl moiety through an oxygen atom (forming an ester group).
Acetaldehyde is a colorless, flammable liquid used in the manufacture of acetic acid, perfumes, and flavors. In the chemical industry, acetaldehyde is used as an intermediate in the production of acetic acid, certain esters, and a number of other chemicals. it is also an air pollutant resulting from combustion, such as automotive exhaust and tobacco smoke. It is also an intermediate in the metabolism of alcohol. It has a general narcotic action and also causes irritation of mucous membranes. Large doses may cause death from respiratory paralysis. Small amounts of acetaldehyde are produced naturally through gut microbial fermentation. Acetaldehyde is produced through the action of alcohol dehydrogenase on ethanol and is somewhate more toxic than ethanol. Acetaldehyde is linked to most of the negative clinical effects of alcohol. It has been shown to increase the risk of developing cirrhosis of the liver, multiple forms of cancer, and alcoholism.
1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is a neurotoxin that causes permanent symptoms of Parkinson's disease by killing certain neurons in the substantia nigra of the brain. While MPTP itself does not have opioid effects, it is related to MPPP, a synthetic opioid drug with effects similar to those of heroin and morphine. MPTP can be accidentally produced during the illicit manufacture of MPPP, and that is how its Parkinson-inducing effects were first discovered. MPTP is used to recreate and study the Parkinson's disease in experimental animal models. (L1670)
Albendazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a benzimidazole broad-spectrum anthelmintic structurally related to mebendazole that is effective against many diseases. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p38). Albendazole causes degenerative alterations in the tegument and intestinal cells of the worm by binding to the colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin, thus inhibiting its polymerization or assembly into microtubules. The loss of the cytoplasmic microtubules leads to impaired uptake of glucose by the larval and adult stages of the susceptible parasites, and depletes their glycogen stores. Degenerative changes in the endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria of the germinal layer, and the subsequent release of lysosomes result in decreased production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the energy required for the survival of the helminth. Due to diminished energy production, the parasite is immobilized and eventually dies.
Allopurinol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a xanthine oxidase inhibitor that decreases uric acid production. It also acts as an antimetabolite on some simpler organisms. [PubChem] Allopurinol and its active metabolite, oxypurinol, inhibits the enzyme xanthine oxidase, blocking the conversion of the oxypurines hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid. Elevated concentrations of oxypurine and oxypurine inhibition of xanthine oxidase through negative feedback results in a decrease in the concentrations of uric acid in the serum and urine. Allopurinol also facilitates the incorporation of hypoxanthine and xanthine into DNA and RNA, leading to a feedback inhibition of de novo purin synthesis and a decrease in serum uric acid concentrations as a result of an increase in nucleotide concentration.
Atenolol is a so-called beta1-selective (or 'cardioselective') drug. That means that it exerts greater blocking activity on myocardial beta1-receptors than on beta2 ones in the lung. The beta2 receptors are responsible to keep the bronchial system open. If these receptors are blocked, bronchospasm with serious lack of oxygen in the body can result. However, due to its cardioselective properties, the risk of bronchospastic reactions if using atenolol is reduced compared to nonselective drugs as propranolol. Nonetheless, this reaction may also be encountered with atenolol, particularly with high doses. Extreme caution should be exerted if atenolol is given to asthma patients, who are particularly at risk; the dose should be as low as possible. If an asthma attack occurs, the inhalation of a beta2-mimetic antiasthmatic, such as hexoprenalin or salbutamol, will usually suppress the symptoms. Atenolol (trade name Tenormin) can be used to treat cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, arrhythmias, and treatment of myocardial infarction after the acute event. Patients with compensated congestive heart failure may be treated with atenolol as a co medication (usually together with an ACE inhibitor, a diuretic and a digitalis-glycoside, if indicated). In patients with congestive heart failure, it reduces the need for and the consumption of oxygen of the heart muscle. It is very important to start with low doses, as atenolol reduces also the muscular power of the heart, which is an undesired effect in congestive heart failure.
Etidronic acid is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a diphosphonate which affects calcium metabolism. It inhibits ectopic calcification and slows down bone resorption and bone turnover. [PubChem] Bisphosphonates, when attached to bone tissue, are absorbed by osteoclasts, the bone cells that breaks down bone tissue. Although the mechanism of action of non-nitrogenous bisphosphonates has not been fully elucidated, available data suggest that they bind strongly to hydroxyapatite crystals in the bone matrix, preferentially at the sites of increased bone turnover and inhibit the formation and dissolution of the crystals. Other actions may include direct inhibition of mature osteoclast function, promotion of osteoclast apoptosis, and interference with osteoblast-mediated osteoclast activation. Etidronic acid does not interfere with bone mineralization. In malignancy-related hypercalcemia, etidronic acid decreases serum calcium by inhibiting tumour-induced bone resorption and reducing calcium flow from the resorbing bone into the blood. Etidronic acid also reduces morbidity of osteolytic bone metastases by inhibiting tumour-induced bone resorption. Etidronic acid may promote osteoclast apoptosis by competing with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the cellular energy metabolism. The osteoclast initiates apoptosis and dies, leading to an overall decrease in the breakdown of bone.
Brimonidine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a drug used to treat glaucoma. It acts via decreasing aqueous humor synthesis. [Wikipedia] A topical gel formulation, marketed under the name Mirvaso, was FDA approved on August 2013 for the treatment of rosacea. Brimonidine is an alpha adrenergic receptor agonist (primarily alpha-2). It has a peak ocular hypotensive effect occurring at two hours post-dosing. Fluorophotometric studies in animals and humans suggest that Brimonidine has a dual mechanism of action by reducing aqueous humor production and increasing uveoscleral outflow.
A centrally acting skeletal muscle relaxant whose mechanism of action is not completely understood but may be related to its sedative actions. It is used as an adjunct in the symptomatic treatment of musculoskeletal conditions associated with painful muscle spasm. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1202)
Ceftibuten is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic. It is an orally-administered agent. Cefalexin is used to treat acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis (ABECB), acute bacterial otitis media, pharyngitis, and tonsilitis.
Ciprofloxacin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline. The bactericidal action of ciprofloxacin results from inhibition of the enzymes topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase IV, which are required for bacterial DNA replication, transcription, repair, strand supercoiling repair, and recombination.
Clindamycin is a semisynthetic lincosamide antibiotic that has largely replaced lincomycin due to an improved side effect profile. Clindamycin inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits. It may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
A cyclic undecapeptide from an extract of soil fungi. It is a powerful immunosupressant with a specific action on T-lymphocytes. It is used for the prophylaxis of graft rejection in organ and tissue transplantation. Cyclosporine is produced as a metabolite by the fungus species Cordyceps militaris. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed).
Darifenacin (Enablex&#8482;, Novartis) is a medication used to treat urinary incontinence.

Darifenacin works by blocking the M3 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, which is primarily responsible for bladder muscle contractions. It thereby decreases the urgency to urinate. It should not be used in people with urinary retention.

It is not known whether this selectivity for the M3 receptor translates into any clinical advantage when treating symptoms of overactive bladder syndrome.
Docetaxel is a clinically well established anti-mitotic chemotherapy medication used mainly for the treatment of breast, ovarian, and non-small cell lung cancer. Docetaxel binds to microtubules reversibly with high affinity and has a maximum stoichiometry of one mole docetaxel per mole tubulin in microtubules.
Fenthion is an organophosphate used primarily as an insecticide and secondarily as an avicide and acaricide. It was used extensively preharvest on sugar cane, rice, field corn, beets, pome and stone fruit, citrus fruits, pistachio, cotton, olives, coffee, cocoa, vegetables, and vines. However, fenthion no longer has Food and Drug Administration approval because of an excess number of poisoning related deaths (occur mostly by ingestion). Fenthion is neurotoxic. (L1682) (L1683)
Fluoroacetate is highly toxic to mammals and insects and it is used as a pesticide. The more common fluorinated acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid and its sodium salt are far less toxic. (L1713)
Capecitabine is an orally-administered chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of metastatic breast and colorectal cancers. Capecitabine is a prodrug, that is enzymatically converted to fluorouracil (antimetabolite) in the tumor, where it inhibits DNA synthesis and slows growth of tumor tissue.
Hydroxychloroquine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a chemotherapeutic agent that acts against erythrocytic forms of malarial parasites. Although the exact mechanism of action is unknown, it may be based on ability of hydroxychloroquine to bind to and alter DNA. Hydroxychloroquine has also has been found to be taken up into the acidic food vacuoles of the parasite in the erythrocyte. This increases the pH of the acid vesicles, interfering with vesicle functions and possibly inhibiting phospholipid metabolism. In suppressive treatment, hydroxychloroquine inhibits the erythrocytic stage of development of plasmodia. In acute attacks of malaria, it interrupts erythrocytic schizogony of the parasite. Its ability to concentrate in parasitized erythrocytes may account for their selective toxicity against the erythrocytic stages of plasmodial infection. As an antirheumatic, hydroxychloroquine is thought to act as a mild immunosuppressant, inhibiting the production of rheumatoid factor and acute phase reactants. It also accumulates in white blood cells, stabilizing lysosomal membranes and inhibiting the activity of many enzymes, including collagenase and the proteases that cause cartilage breakdown.
Ifosfamide is a chemotherapeutic agent chemically related to the nitrogen mustards and a synthetic analog of cyclophosphamide. It is active as an alkylating agent and an immunosuppresive agent. The exact mechanism of ifosfamide has not been determined, but appears to be similar to other alkylating agents. Ifosfamide requires biotransformation in the liver by mixed-function oxidases (cytochrome P450 system) before it becomes active. After metabolic activation, active metabolites of ifosfamide alkylate or bind with many intracellular molecular structures, including nucleic acids. The cytotoxic action is primarily through the alkylation of DNA, done by attaching the N-7 position of guanine to its reactive electrophilic groups. The formation of inter and intra strand cross-links in the DNA results in cell death.
Itraconazole is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the triazole antifungal agents that inhibits cytochrome P-450-dependent enzymes resulting in impairment of ergosterol synthesis. It has been used against histoplasmosis, blastomycosis, cryptococcal meningitis & aspergillosis. [PubChem]Itraconazole interacts with 14-alpha demethylase, a cytochrome P-450 enzyme necessary to convert lanosterol to ergosterol. As ergosterol is an essential component of the fungal cell membrane, inhibition of its synthesis results in increased cellular permeability causing leakage of cellular contents. Itraconazole may also inhibit endogenous respiration, interact with membrane phospholipids, inhibit the transformation of yeasts to mycelial forms, inhibit purine uptake, and impair triglyceride and/or phospholipid biosynthesis.
Labetalol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a blocker of both alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors that is used as an antihypertensive (PubChem). Labetalol HCl combines both selective, competitive, alpha-1-adrenergic blocking and nonselective, competitive, beta-adrenergic blocking activity in a single substance. In man, the ratios of alpha- to beta- blockade have been estimated to be approximately 1:3 and 1:7 following oral and intravenous (IV) administration, respectively. The principal physiologic action of labetalol is to competitively block adrenergic stimulation of &#946;-receptors within the myocardium (&#946;1-receptors) and within bronchial and vascular smooth muscle (&#946;2-receptors), and &#945;1-receptors within vascular smooth muscle. This causes a decrease in systemic arterial blood pressure and systemic vascular resistance without a substantial reduction in resting heart rate, cardiac output, or stroke volume, apparently because of its combined &#945;- and &#946;-adrenergic blocking activity.
Melamine is an organic base and a trimer of cyanamide, with a 1,3,5-triazine skeleton. Like cyanamide, it contains 66% nitrogen by mass and, if mixed with resins, has fire retardant properties due to its release of nitrogen gas when burned or charred, and has several other industrial uses. Melamine is also a metabolite of cyromazine, a pesticide. It is formed in the body of mammals who have ingested cyromazine. It has been reported that cyromazine can also be converted to melamine in plants. Melamine is described as Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Chronic exposure may cause cancer or reproductive damage. Eye, skin and respiratory irritant. However, the short-term lethal dose is on a par with common table salt with an LD50 of more than 3 grams per kilogram of bodyweight.[15] U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) scientists explained that when melamine and cyanuric acid are absorbed into the bloodstream, they concentrate and interact in the urine-filled renal tubules, then crystallize and form large numbers of round, yellow crystals, which in turn block and damage the renal cells that line the tubes, causing the kidneys to malfunction.
Metaldehyde is a cyclic tetramer of acetaldehyde commonly used as a pesticide against slugs, snails, and other gastropods. Metaldehyde intoxication leads to central nervous system depression, and liver and kidney injury. (L1782)
Metformin is the most popular anti-diabetic drug in the United States and one of the most prescribed drugs in the country overall, with nearly 35 million prescriptions filled in 2006 for generic metformin alone. Metformin is a biguanide antihyperglycemic agent used for treating non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). It improves glycemic control by decreasing hepatic glucose production, decreasing glucose absorption and increasing insulin-mediated glucose uptake. Metformin is the only oral antihyperglycemic agent that is not associated with weight gain. Metformin may induce weight loss and is the drug of choice for obese NIDDM patients. When used alone, metformin does not cause hypoglycemia; however, it may potentiate the hypoglycemic effects of sulfonylureas and insulin. Its main side effects are dyspepsia, nausea and diarrhea. Dose titration and/or use of smaller divided doses may decrease side effects. Metformin should be avoided in those with severely compromised renal function (creatinine clearance < 30 ml/min), acute/decompensated heart failure, severe liver disease and for 48 hours after the use of iodinated contrast dyes due to the risk of lactic acidosis. Lower doses should be used in the elderly and those with decreased renal function. Metformin decreases fasting plasma glucose, postprandial blood glucose and glycosolated hemoglobin (HbA1c) levels, which are reflective of the last 8-10 weeks of glucose control. Metformin may also have a positive effect on lipid levels. In 2012, a combination tablet of linagliptin plus metformin hydrochloride was marketed under the name Jentadueto for use in patients when treatment with both linagliptin and metformin is appropriate.
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is an unstable organic peroxide used in the manufacture of acrylic resins, as a hardening agent for fiberglass-reinforced plastics, and as a curing agent for unsaturated polyester resins. It is commercially available as a 40% to 60% solution in dimethyl phthalate (DMP). MEKP is a severe skin irritant and can cause progressive corrosive damage or blindness. (L1788) (L1789)
Omeprazole is a highly effective inhibitor of gastric acid secretion used in the therapy of stomach ulcers, dyspepsia, peptic ulcer disease , gastroesophageal reflux disease and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. The drug inhibits the H(+)-K(+)-ATPase (H(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase) in the proton pump of Gastric Parietal Cells.--Pubchem. Omeprazole is one of the most widely prescribed drugs internationally and is available over the counter in some countries.
Pentamidine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antiprotozoal agent effective in trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and some fungal infections; used in treatment of pneumocystis pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. It may cause diabetes mellitus, central nervous system damage, and other toxic effects. [PubChem] The mode of action of pentamidine is not fully understood. It is thought that the drug interferes with nuclear metabolism producing inhibition of the synthesis of DNA, RNA, phospholipids, and proteins.
Polymyxin B sulfate is a mixture of polymyxins B1 and B2, obtained from Bacillus polymyxa strains. They are basic polypeptides of about eight amino acids and have cationic detergent action on cell membranes. Polymyxin B is used for infections with gram-negative organisms, but may be neurotoxic and nephrotoxic. All gram-positive bacteria, fungi, and the gram-negative cocci, N. gonorrhea and N. menigitidis, are resistant. It is appropriate for treatment of infections of the urinary tract, meninges, and blood stream, caused by susceptible strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Salvinorin A is the main active psychotropic molecule in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant which has a long history of use as an entheogen by indigenous Mazatec shamans. Salvinorin A is a hallucinogenic compound with dissociative effects (L1181).
Sorafenib (rINN), marketed as Nexavar by Bayer, is a drug approved for the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma (primary kidney cancer). It has also received 'Fast Track' designation by the FDA for the treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (primary liver cancer), and has since performed well in Phase III trials.
Sorafenib is a small molecular inhibitor of Raf kinase, PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor), VEGF receptor 2 & 3 kinases and c Kit the receptor for Stem cell factor. A growing number of drugs target most of these pathways. The originality of Sorafenib lays in its simultaneous targeting of the Raf/Mek/Erk pathway.
Telithromycin, a semi-synthetic erythromycin derivative, belongs to a new chemical class of antibiotics called ketolides. Ketolides have been recently added to the macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin class of antibiotics. Similar to the macrolide antibiotics, telithromycin prevents bacterial growth by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis. Telithromycin binds to the 50S subunit of the 70S bacterial ribosome and blocks further peptide elongation. Binding occurs simultaneously at to two domains of 23S RNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit, domain II and V, where older macrolides bind only to one. It is used to treat mild to moderate respiratory infections.
Terazosin is a selective alpha 1 antagonist used for treatment of symptoms of prostate enlargement (BPH). It also acts to lower blood pressure, so it is a drug of choice for men with hypertension and prostate enlargement. It works by blocking the action of adrenaline on smooth muscle of the bladder and the blood vessel walls.
A piperidinyl isoindole originally introduced as a non-barbiturate hypnotic, but withdrawn from the market due to teratogenic effects. It has been reintroduced and used for a number of immunological and inflammatory disorders. Thalidomide displays immunosuppresive and anti-angiogenic activity. It inhibits release of tumor necrosis factor-alpha from monocytes, and modulates other cytokine action. [PubChem]
Valaciclovir (INN) or valacyclovir (USAN) is an antiviral drug used in the management of herpes simplex and herpes zoster (shingles). It is a prodrug, being converted in vivo to aciclovir. It is marketed by GlaxoSmithKline under the trade name Valtrex or Zelitrex. [Wikipedia]
Vancomycin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antibacterial obtained from Streptomyces orientalis. It is a glycopeptide related to ristocetin that inhibits bacterial cell wall assembly and is toxic to kidneys and the inner ear. [PubChem]The bactericidal action of vancomycin results primarily from inhibition of cell-wall biosynthesis. Specifically, vancomycin prevents incorporation of N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)- and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)-peptide subunits from being incorporated into the peptidoglycan matrix; which forms the major structural component of Gram-positive cell walls. The large hydrophilic molecule is able to form hydrogen bond interactions with the terminal D-alanyl-D-alanine moieties of the NAM/NAG-peptides. Normally this is a five-point interaction. This binding of vancomycin to the D-Ala-D-Ala prevents the incorporation of the NAM/NAG-peptide subunits into the peptidoglycan matrix. In addition, vancomycin alters bacterial-cell-membrane permeability and RNA synthesis. There is no cross-resistance between vancomycin and other antibiotics. Vancomycin is not active in vitro against gram-negative bacilli, mycobacteria, or fungi.
Verapamil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. Verapamil is a calcium channel blocker that is a class IV anti-arrhythmia agent. [PubChem]Verapamil inhibits voltage-dependent calcium channels. Specifically, its effect on L-type calcium channels in the heart causes a reduction in ionotropy and chronotropy, thuis reducing heart rate and blood pressure. Verapamil's mechanism of effect in cluster headache is thought to be linked to its calcium-channel blocker effect, but which channel subtypes are involved is presently not known. [PubChem] Calcium channel antagonists can be quite toxic. In the management of poisoning, early recognition is critical. Calcium channel antagonists are frequently prescribed, and the potential for serious morbidity and mortality with over dosage is significant. Ingestion of these agents should be suspected in any patient who presents in an overdose situation with unexplained hypotension and conduction abnormalities. The potential for toxicity should be noted in patients with underlying hepatic or renal dysfunction who are receiving therapeutic doses. (A7844).
Ammonium nitrite is a chemical compound of ammonium and nitrite ions. It is used as a rodenticide, microbiocide and agricultural pesticide, and is acutely toxic to both humans and aquatic organisms. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1614)
Nitrous acid is a weak and monobasic acid known only in solution and in the form of nitrite salts. It is prepared by adding any mineral acid to sodium nitrite and is used in chemical synthesis. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1615)
Potassium nitrite is a chemical compound of potassium and nitrite ions. It is used as a food preservative and in the manufacturing of heat transfer salts. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1616)
Sodium nitrite is a chemical compound of sodium and nitrite ions. It is used mainly as a color fixative and preservative in meats and fish. Sodium nitrite may also be used in organic synthesis, in dyeing and printing textile fabrics, in photography, as a laboratory reagent and a corrosion inhibitor, and in the manufacture of rubber chemicals. Sodium nitrite also has been used in human and veterinary medicine as a vasodilator, a bronchodilator, and an antidote for cyanide poisoning. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1617)
Ammonium nitrate is a nitrate of ammonium. It is commonly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer, and it has also been used as an oxidizing agent in explosives. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1619)
Cesium nitrate is a nitrate of caesium. It is used in pyrotechnic compositions as a colorant and an oxidizer. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1620)
Calcium nitrate is a nitrate of calcium. It is mainly used as a component in fertilizers. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1621)
Ceric ammonium nitrate is a inorganic compound of nitrate and ammonium. It is used as an oxidising agent in organic synthesis. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137, L1622)
Chlorine nitrate is a nitrate of chlorine. It is an important atmospheric gas present in the stratosphere. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1623)
Cellulose nitrate is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. It can be used as a propellant, low-order explosive, film base, laquer, wound dressing, and carrier of topical medications. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1624)
Dinitrogen tetroxide is a chemical compound that is a powerful oxidizer, highly toxic, and corrosive. It is used mainly as a rocket propellant. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1625)
Gadolinium nitrate is a nirate of gadolinium. It is used as a water-soluble neutron poison in nuclear reactors, and also as a raw material in the production of other gadolinium compounds, for production of specialty glasses and ceramics, and as a phosphor. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1626)
Guanidine nitrate is a nitrate of guanidine. It is a high energy fuel used in some gas generator and solid rocket propellant applications. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1627)
Hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN) is the salt of hydroxylamine and nitric acid. It is being developed as a potential rocket propellant and is sometimes used in nuclear reprocessing as a plutonium reductant. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1628)
Iron(III) nitrate is a nitrate of iron. It is used as a catalyst in chemical synthesis, and also by jewelers and metalsmiths to etch silver and silver alloys. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1629)
Lithium nitrate is a nitrate of lithium. It is an oxidizing agent used in the manufacture of red-colored fireworks and flares. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1630)
Magnesium nitrate is a nitrate of mangesium. It is found in mines and caverns as nitromagnesite and can be used in ceramics, printing, chemical and agriculture (as a fertilizer) industries. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1631)
Methylammonium nitrate is an explosive chemical formed by the mixture of methylamine and nitric acid. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1632)
Nitric acid (HNO3), also known as aqua fortis and spirit of niter, is a highly corrosive mineral acid. The pure compound is colorless, but older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to decomposition into oxides of nitrogen and water. Most commercially available nitric acid has a concentration of 68%. When the solution contains more than 86% HNO3, it is referred to as fuming nitric acid. Nitric acid is the primary reagent used for nitration - the addition of a nitro group, typically to an organic molecule. The main industrial use of nitric acid is for the production of fertilizers. Nitric acid is neutralized with ammonia to give ammonium nitrate. The other main applications are for the production of explosives, nylon precursors, and specialty organic compounds.
Potassium nitrate is a nitrate of potassium. It is used as an oxidizing component of gunpowder, a preservative, a fertilizer, and can also be found in some toothpastes. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1634)
Rubidium nitrate is a nitrate of rubidium. It is used in pyrotechnic compositions as a colorant and an oxidizer. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1635)
Sodium nitrate is a nitrate of sodium. It is used as an ingredient in fertilizers, pyrotechnics, as a food preservative, and as a solid rocket propellant, and also in glass and pottery enamels. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1636)
Strontium nitrate is a nitrate of strontium. It is used as an oxidizer and colorant in fireworks. Nitrite is a toxic compound known to cause methemoglobinemia. (L1137,  L1637)
2-Nitrophenol is a phenolic compound that is used mainly to make dyes, paint coloring, rubber chemicals, and substances that kill molds. (L1661)
Sodium fluoroacetate is an organofluorine compound and a derivative of fluoroacetic acid. Sodium fluoroacetate is known under its brand name "1080". Sodium fluoroacetate occurs naturally as an anti-herbivore metabolite in various plants but can also be produced synthetically. Fluoroacetate is highly toxic to mammals and insects; it is used as a pesticide especially for mammalian pest species. The more common fluorinated acetic acid, trifluoroacetic acid and its sodium salt are far less toxic. (L1713)
Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family. It was first synthesized by Albert Hofmann in 1938 from ergot, a grain fungus that typically grows on rye. LSD is non-addictive and non-toxic. It is well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, synaesthesia, a sense of time distortion, ego death and spiritual experiences, as well as for its key role in 1960s counterculture. It is used mainly by psychonauts as an entheogen, recreational drug and as an agent in psychedelic therapy. (L1925). Debate continues over the nature and causes of chronic flashbacks. Explanations in terms of LSD physically remaining in the body for months or years after consumption have been discounted by experimental evidence. Some say Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD) is a manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder, not related to the direct action of LSD on brain chemistry, and varies according to the susceptibility of the individual to the disorder. Many emotionally intense experiences can lead to flashbacks when a person is reminded acutely of the original experience. However, not all published case reports of chronic flashbacks appear to describe an anxious hyper-vigilant state reminiscent of post-traumatic stress disorder.
epsilon-Amanitin is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Amanullin is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Amanullinic acid is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Amaninamide is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Amanin is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Proamanullin is one of a group of at least eight Amatoxins found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms, most notably Amanita phalloides and several other members of the genus Amanita, as well as some Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota mushroom species. (L1774)
Iodine is an essential trace element. Chemically, iodine is the least reactive of the halogens, and the most electropositive halogen after astatine. However, iodine does not occur in the free state in nature. As with all other halogens , when freed from its compounds iodine forms diatomic molecules (I2). Iodine and its compounds are primarily used in medicine, photography, and dyes. Iodine is required for the production of thyroid hormones, which are essential for normal brain development, and the fetus, newborn, and young child are particularly vulnerable to iodine deficiency. Physiologically, iodine exists as an ion in the body. The iodine requirement increases during pregnancy and recommended intakes are in the range of 220-250 microg/day. Monitoring iodine status during pregnancy is a challenge. New recommendations from World Health Organization suggest that a median urinary iodine concentration >250 microg/L and <500 microg/L indicates adequate iodine intake in pregnancy. Based on this range, it appears that many pregnant women in have inadequate intakes. Thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration in the newborn is a sensitive indicator of mild iodine deficiency in late pregnancy. The potential adverse effects of mild iodine deficiency during pregnancy are uncertain. Controlled trials of iodine supplementation in mildly iodine-deficient pregnant women suggest beneficial effects on maternal and newborn serum thyroglobulin and thyroid volume, but no effects on maternal and newborn total or free thyroid hormone concentrations. There are no long-term data on the effect of iodine supplementation on birth outcomes or infant development. New data from well-controlled studies indicate that iodine repletion in moderately iodine-deficient school-age children has clear benefits: it improves cognitive and motor function; it also increases concentrations of insulin-like growth factor 1 and insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 3, and improves somatic growth. (A7846).
Citrinin is a mycotoxin originally isolated from Penicillium citrinum. It has since been found to be produced by a variety of other fungi which are used in the production of human foods such as grain, cheese, sake and red pigments. Citrinin is also produced by a variety of other fungi including Aspergillus niveus, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus terreus, Monascus ruber, Monascus purpureus, and Penicillium camemberti. It is usually found together with another nephrotoxic mycotoxin, ochratoxin A (OTA). (L1958, A2982). It causes mycotoxic nephropathy in livestock and has been implicated as a cause of Balkan nephropathy and yellow rice fever in humans.
Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, most notably Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature. Aflatoxin B1 is considered the most toxic and is produced by both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The native habitat of Aspergillus is in soil, decaying vegetation, hay, and grains undergoing microbiological deterioration and it invades all types of organic substrates whenever conditions are favorable for its growth. Favorable conditions include high moisture content (at least 7%) and high temperature. Aflatoxins B1 (AFB1) are contaminants of improperly stored foods; they are potent genotoxic and carcinogenic compounds, exerting their effects through damage to DNA. They can also induce mutations that increase oxidative damage. (A7847). Crops which are frequently affected by Aspergillus contamination include cereals (maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice, wheat), oilseeds (peanut, soybean, sunflower, cotton), spices (chile peppers, black pepper, coriander, turmeric, ginger), and tree nuts (almond, pistachio, walnut, coconut, brazil nut).
2-Aminophenol is an amphoteric molecule and a reducing agent. It is a useful reagent for the synthesis of dyes and heterocyclic compounds. As it is used synthesis of dyes, it can often be found in cosmetic products such as hair dyes. (L1882)
4-Aminophenol is an amphoteric molecule and a reducing agent. Aminophenols are intermediates in the synthesis of dyes and can thus be found in numerous cosmetics products, particularly hair dyes. 4-aminophenol is considered a minor nephrotoxic metabolite of phenacetin and acetaminophen (paracetamol) in man. 4-Aminophenol can undergo autoxidations and metal-catalyzed and enzymatic oxidations in man to produce reactive oxygen species. (A7848) (L1882)
3-Aminophenol is an amphoteric molecule and a reducing agent. Aminophenols are intermediates in the synthesis of dyes and can thus be found in numerous cosmetics products, particularly hair dyes. (L1882)
Fumonisin B1 is from Fusarium moniliforme Fumonisin B1 is an inhibitor of ceramide synthase.

Fumonisin B1 belongs to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
Gliotoxin is a sulfur-containing antibiotic produced by several species of fungi, some of which are pathogens of humans such as Aspergillus, and also by species of Trichoderma, and Penicillium. Gliotoxin possesses immunosuppressive properties as it may suppress and cause apoptosis  in certain types of cells of the immune system, including neutrophils, eosinophils, granulocytes, macrophages, and thymocytes. (L1941)
Ochratoxin A is found in barley. Mycotoxin. Ochratoxin A is produced by Aspergillus melleus, Aspergillus sulphureus and Penicillium viridicatum.Potential contaminant of foodstuffs, especially cereals. Ochratoxin A is found in stored grain products in UK (1997).Ochratoxin A, a toxin produced by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum, is one of the most abundant food-contaminating mycotoxins in the world. Human exposure occurs mainly through consumption of improperly stored food products, particularly contaminated grain and pork products, as well as coffee, wine grapes and dried grapes. The toxin has been found in the tissues and organs of animals, including human blood and breast milk. Ochratoxin A toxicity has large species- and sex-specific differences.

Ochratoxin a belongs to the family of Ochratoxins and related substances. These are compounds containing the ochratoxin skeleton, which is structurally characterized by the presence of a 3-phenylpropanoic acid N-linked to a 8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-oxo-3,4-dihydro-1H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxamide moiety[1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Ochratoxin B is a metabolite of Aspergillus ochraceus

Ochratoxin B belongs to the family of Ochratoxins and related substances. These are compounds containing the ochratoxin skeleton, which is structurally characterized by the presence of a 3-phenylpropanoic acid N-linked to a 8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-oxo-3,4-dihydro-1H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxamide moiety[1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Ochratoxin C is a metabolite of Aspergillus ochraceus

Ochratoxin C belongs to the family of Ochratoxins and related substances. These are compounds containing the ochratoxin skeleton, which is structurally characterized by the presence of a 3-phenylpropanoic acid N-linked to a 8-hydroxy-3-methyl-1-oxo-3,4-dihydro-1H-2-benzopyran-7-carboxamide moiety[1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Microcystin-YR (MCРYR) is one of over 80 types of microcystins, cyclic heptapeptides that have been shown to be liver toxins, and which are produced by <i>Microcystis</i> species. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Microcystin-RR is an Arg-Arg analog of microcystin-LR. It is hepatotoxic, although found to be up to 10-fold less toxic than microcystin-LR on intraperitoneal injection injection in mice. It is a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Microcystins (also known as cyanoginosins) are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Cyanoginosin-LA is a microcystin. Many cyanobacteria species produce a group of toxins known as microcystins. The species most commonly associated with microcystin production is Microcystis aeruginosa. Microcystins are cyclic peptides, containing seven amino acids.  They are the most numerous of the cyanotoxins, comprising over 80 analogs. (A712)
Microcystin-LF is analog of Microcystin-LR with Phe substituted in place of Arg. It is believed to be more cell-permeable than other microcystins. Microcystins (also known as cyanoginosins) are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Microcystin-LL is a microcystin that can inhibit phosphatase activity. Microcystins (also known as cyanoginosins) are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Microcystin-LW is a hydrophobic microcystin. Microcystins (also known as cyanoginosins) are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Microcystin-LY is a microcystin that can inhibit phosphatase activity. Microcystins (also known as cyanoginosins) are a class of toxins produced by certain freshwater cyanobacteria. Microcystins are chemically stable over a wide range of temperature and pH, possibly as a result of their cyclic structure. The toxins are also resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis (in guts of animals) by some general proteases, such as pepsin, trypsin, collagenase, and chymotrypsin.
Nodularin-R is a cyclic nonribosomal peptide produced by the planktonic cyanobacterium <i>Nodularia spumigena</i>. This cyanobacterium forms blooms in brackish water bodies throughout the world. Nodularin-R is a pentapeptide and contains several unusual non-proteinogenic amino acids such as methyldehydrobutyrine and the _-amino acid ADDA, (all-S,all-E)-3-amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid. Nodularin-R is a cyanotoxin and poses a health risk for wild and domestic animals as well as humans. Nodularin-R is a potent hepatotoxin and may cause serious damage to the liver.
Ammonium laureth sulfate is a surfactant often found in shampoos. It can be mildly irritating. (L1888)
Ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS) is the common name for ammonium dodecyl sulfate. ALS is classified as an alkyl sulfate and is an anionic surfactant found primarily in shampoos and body-wash as a foaming agent. Lauryl sulfates are very high-foam surfactants that disrupt the surface tension of water by forming micelles around the polar water molecules. (L1891)
Cocoyl sarcosine is an N-acyl derivative of sarcosine, which is a natural amino acid found in muscles and other body tissues. Acyl sarcosines are considered modified fatty acids in which the hydrocarbon chains are interrupted by an amidomethyl group in the alpha position. They are used as hair-conditioning agents and surfactant-cleansing agents in cosmetics, as well as to improve wetting and penetration of topical pharmaceutical products. Acyl sarcosines and their sodium salts are also used in the metal finishing and processing industries for their crystal modifying, anti-rust, and anti-corrosion properties. (L1892, A2881)
Lauroyl sarcosine is a condensation product of natural fatty acids with sarcosine, which is a natural amino acid found in muscles and other body tissues. Acyl sarcosines are considered modified fatty acids in which the hydrocarbon chains are interrupted by an amidomethyl group in the alpha position. They are used as hair-conditioning agents and surfactant-cleansing agents in cosmetics, as well as to improve wetting and penetration of topical pharmaceutical products. Acyl sarcosines and their sodium salts are also used in the metal finishing and processing industries for their crystal modifying, anti-rust, and anti-corrosion properties. (L1892, A2881)
Sodium cocoyl sarcosinate is an sodium salt of an acyl derivative of sarcosine, which is a natural amino acid found in muscles and other body tissues. Acyl sarcosines are considered modified fatty acids in which the hydrocarbon chains are interrupted by an amidomethyl group in the alpha position. They are used as hair-conditioning agents and surfactant-cleansing agents in cosmetics, as well as to improve wetting and penetration of topical pharmaceutical products. Acyl sarcosines and their sodium salts are also used in the metal finishing and processing industries for their crystal modifying, anti-rust, and anti-corrosion properties. (L1892, A2881)
Sodium lauroyl sarcosinate is an sodium salt of an acyl derivative of sarcosine, which is a natural amino acid found in muscles and other body tissues. Acyl sarcosines are considered modified fatty acids in which the hydrocarbon chains are interrupted by an amidomethyl group in the alpha position. They are used as hair-conditioning agents and surfactant-cleansing agents in cosmetics, as well as to improve wetting and penetration of topical pharmaceutical products. Acyl sarcosines and their sodium salts are also used in the metal finishing and processing industries for their crystal modifying, anti-rust, and anti-corrosion properties. (L1892, A2881)
Imidazolidinyl urea is an antimicrobial preservative used in cosmetics. It acts as a formaldehyde releaser. Imidazolidinyl urea may cause contact dermatitis. It's toxicity is also due to it's ability to react and release formaldehyde and nitrosamines, both of which are believed to be carcinogenic. (L1890, L1894)
Diazolidinyl urea is an antimicrobial preservative that acts as a formaldehyde releaser. It is used in many cosmetics, skin care products, shampoos and conditioners, as well as a wide range of products including bubble baths, baby wipes and household detergents. Diazolidinyl urea is found in the commercially available preservative Germaben. Diazolidinyl urea may cause contact dermatitis. Its toxicity is also due to it's ability to release formaldehyde, which is believed to be carcinogenic. (L1895)
1,3-Dimethylol-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (DMDM hydantoin) is an antimicrobial formaldehyde releaser preservative with the trade name Glydant. DMDM hydantoin is an organic compound belonging a class of compounds known as hydantoins. It is used in the cosmetics industry and found in products like shampoos, hair conditioners and skin care products. (L1896)
Quaternium-15 is a quaternary ammonium salt used as a preservative in many cosmetics and industrial substances. It acts as a formaldehyde releaser. It can cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. It's toxicity is also due to it's ability to react and release formaldehyde and nitrosamines, both of which are believed to be carcinogenic. (L1890, L1897)
Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is an anionic surfactant used in many cleaning and hygiene products. It is naturally derived from coconut and/or palm kernel oil. It usually consisting of a mixture of sodium alkyl sulfates, mainly the lauryl. SLS lowers surface tension of aqueous solutions and is used as fat emulsifier, wetting agent, and detergent in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and toothpastes. It is also used in creams and pastes to properly disperse the ingredients and as research tool in protein biochemistry. SLS also has some microbicidal activity. The molecule has a tail of 12 carbon atoms, attached to a sulfate group, giving the molecule the amphiphilic properties required of a detergent. SLS is a highly effective surfactant used in any task requiring the removal of oily stains and residues. As such the compound is found in high concentrations in industrial products including engine degreasers, floor cleaners, and car wash soaps. In household products, SLS is used in lower concentrations with toothpastes, shampoos, and shaving foams. It is an important component in bubble bath formulations for its thickening effect and its ability to create a lather. SLS may irritate the skin and eyes. (L1898)
Sodium laureth sulfate is a detergent and surfactant found in many personal care products (soaps, shampoos, toothpaste etc.). It is an inexpensive and very effective foaming agent made by mixing sulfuric acid, monododecyl ester, and sodium salt. Sodium laureth sulfate may cause eye or skin irritation. (L1899)
Quaternium-22 is a quaternary ammonium salt found in numerous cosmetics. Its toxicity is due to its ability to act as a nitrosating agent, releasing potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines. (L1890)
Quaternium-52 is a quaternary ammonium salt found in numerous cosmetics. Its toxicity is due to its ability to act as a nitrosating agent, releasing potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines. (L1890)
Quaternium-10 is a quaternary ammonium salt found in numerous cosmetics. Its toxicity is due to its ability to act as a nitrosating agent, releasing potentially carcinogenic nitrosamines. (L1890)
Diethyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. This synthetic substance is commonly used to make plastics more flexible. Products in which it is found include toothbrushes, automobile parts, tools, toys, and food packaging. Diethyl phthalate can be released fairly easily from these products, as it is not part of the chain of chemicals (polymers) that makes up the plastic. Diethyl phthalate is also used in cosmetics, insecticides, and aspirin. Phthalate esters can cause reproductive and developmental toxicity. (L1900, A2883)
Butyl cyclohexyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles.  Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Butyl decyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Di(n-octyl) phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diallyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Dicyclohexyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
DIBP is an odorless plasticizer and has excellent heat and light stability. It is the lowest cost plasticizer for cellulose nitrate. DIBP has lower density and freezing point than DBP (dibutyl phthalate, CAS No.: 84-74-2). It has similar properties as dibutyl phthalate and can be used as a substitute for it.
Diisodecyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisoheptyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisohexyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisononyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisooctyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisotridecyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diisoundecyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Dimethyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Di-n-hexyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Di-n-propyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Di-n-propyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Ditridecyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Diundecyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
n-Octyl n-decyl phthalate is a phthalate ester. Phthalate esters are esters of phthalic acid and are mainly used as plasticizers, primarily used to soften polyvinyl chloride. They are found in a number of products, including glues, building materials, personal care products, detergents and surfactants, packaging, children's toys, paints, pharmaceuticals, food products, and textiles. Phthalates are hazardous due to their ability to act as endocrine disruptors. They are being phased out of many products in the United States and European Union due to these health concerns. (L1903)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE), is a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in synthetic fibers; beverage, food and other liquid containers; thermoforming applications; and engineering resins often in combination with glass fiber. The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%) with bottle production accounting for around 30% of global demand. Some of the trade names of PET products are Dacron, Diolen, Tergal, Terylene, and Trevira fibers, Cleartuf, Eastman PET and Polyclear bottle resins, Hostaphan, Melinex, and Mylar films, and Arnite, Ertalyte, Impet, Rynite and Valox injection molding resins. PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating C10H8O4 units. PET is commonly recycled, and has the number "1" as its recycling symbol. (L1907)
Glycolic acid (or hydroxyacetic acid) is the smallest alpha-hydroxy acid (AHA). This colourless, odourless, and hygroscopic crystalline solid is highly soluble in water. Due to its excellent capability to penetrate skin, glycolic acid is often used in skin care products, most often as a chemical peel. It may reduce wrinkles, acne scarring, and hyperpigmentation and improve many other skin conditions, including actinic keratosis, hyperkeratosis, and seborrheic keratosis. Once applied, glycolic acid reacts with the upper layer of the epidermis, weakening the binding properties of the lipids that hold the dead skin cells together. This allows the outer skin to dissolve, revealing the underlying skin. It is thought that this is due to the reduction of calcium ion concentrations in the epidermis and the removal of calcium ions from cell adhesions, leading to desquamation. Glycolic acid is a known inhibitor of tyrosinase. This can suppress melanin formation and lead to a lightening of skin colour. Acute doses of glycolic acid on skin or eyes leads to local effects that are typical of a strong acid (e.g. dermal and eye irritation). Glycolate is a nephrotoxin if consumed orally. A nephrotoxin is a compound that causes damage to the kidney and kidney tissues. Glycolic acid's renal toxicity is due to its metabolism to oxalic acid. Glycolic and oxalic acid, along with excess lactic acid, are responsible for the anion gap metabolic acidosis. Oxalic acid readily precipitates with calcium to form insoluble calcium oxalate crystals. Renal tissue injury is caused by widespread deposition of oxalate crystals and the toxic effects of glycolic acid. Glycolic acid does exhibit some inhalation toxicity and can cause respiratory, thymus, and liver damage if present in very high levels over long periods of time.
Patulin is found in pomes. Mycotoxin, found as a contaminant of foods, e.g. apple juice. Sometimes detd. in apple juice Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds, particularly Aspergillus and Penicillium. It is commonly found in rotting apples, and the amount of patulin in apple products is generally viewed as a measure of the quality of the apples used in production. It is not a particularly potent toxin, but a number of studies have shown that it is genotoxic, which has led to some theories that it may be a carcinogen, though animal studies have remained inconclusive. Patulin is also an antibiotic. Several countries have instituted patulin restrictions in apple products. The World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 ug/L in apple juice.

Patulin has been shown to exhibit apoptotic and antibiotic functions (A7849, A7850).

Patulin belongs to the family of Pyrans. These are compounds containing a pyran ring, which is a six-member heterocyclic, non-aromatic ring with five carbon atoms, one oxygen atom and two ring double bonds.
Roquefortine is found in milk and milk products. Roquefortine is a metabolite of Penicillium roquefortii, Penicillium commune, Penicillium cyclopium, Penicillium farinosum and many other Penicillium species Common constituent of blue cheese

Roquefortine belongs to the family of Pyrroloindoles. These are compounds containing a pyrroloindole moiety, which is a tricyclic heterocycle which consists of a pyrrole ring fused to an indole.
T2 Toxin is isolated from Fusarium species and Trichoderma lignorum. T2 Toxin is an important mycotoxin occurring naturally in various agricultural products.
cis-Zearalenone is a metabolite of Fusarium species.
Aflatoxin M1 is found in milk and milk products. Minor mycotoxin of Aspergillus flavus, also found in the milk of cows and sheep fed toxic meal. Metab. of Aflatoxin B1 <ht>JHZ87-P</ht> [CCD].Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, most notably Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the most carcinogenic substances known. Aflatoxin M1 is a metabolite of aflatoxin B1 in humans and animals. (Wikipedia) 

Aflatoxin m1 belongs to the family of Difurocoumarocyclopentenone Series. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a cyclopenten-2-one ring fused to the coumarin moiety of the difurocoumarin skeleton. Difurocoumarocyclopentenones are a subgroup of the aflatoxins and related compounds.
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin B is an alkaloid isolated from the fungus Helminthosporium dermatioideum, as well as hormiscium species and rhoma species. (A742, A2910, A2911, L1913)
Deoxynivalenol is found in cereals and cereal products. Deoxynivalenol is produced by Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium roseum, responsible for headblight in cereals Vomitoxin, also known as deoxynivalenol (DON), is a type B trichothecene, an epoxy-sesquiterpeneoid. This mycotoxin occurs predominantly in grains such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and maize, and less often in rice, sorghum, and triticale. The occurrence of deoxynivalenol is associated primarily with Fusarium graminearum (Gibberella zeae) and F. culmorum, both of which are important plant pathogens which cause Fusarium head blight in wheat and Gibberella ear rot in maize. Deoxynivalenol is a direct relationship between the incidence of Fusarium head blight and contamination of wheat with deoxynivalenol has been established. The incidence of Fusarium head blight is strongly associated with moisture at the time of flowering (anthesis), and the timing of rainfall, rather than the amount, is the most critical factor. Furthermore, deoxynivalenol contents are significantly affected by the susceptibility of cultivars towards Fusarium species, previous crop, tillage practices, and fungicide use

Deoxynivalenol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Aflatoxin B2 is a metabolite of Aspergillus flavus.
Aflatoxin G is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus

Aflatoxin G belongs to the family of Difurocoumarolactone Series. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a delta-valerolactone ring fused to the coumarin moiety of the difurocoumarin skeleton. Difurocoumarolactones are a subgroup of the aflatoxins and related compounds.
Aflatoxin G2 is a minor  mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxin G2 belongs to the family of Difurocoumarolactone Series. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a delta-valerolactone ring fused to the coumarin moiety of the difurocoumarin skeleton. Difurocoumarolactones are a subgroup of the aflatoxins and related compounds.
Trace mycotoxin of Aspergillus flavus [CCD].Aflatoxins are naturally occurring mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a fungus, most notably Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the most carcinogenic substances known. Aflatoxin M2 is a metabolite of aflatoxin B2 in milk of cattle fed on contaminated foods. (Wikipedia) 

Aflatoxin M2 belongs to the family of Difurocoumarocyclopentenone Series. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a cyclopenten-2-one ring fused to the coumarin moiety of the difurocoumarin skeleton. Difurocoumarocyclopentenones are a subgroup of the aflatoxins and related compounds.
HT-2 toxin is a type-A trichothecene mycotoxin. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948, A735)
Nivalenol is a trichothecene produced by Fusaria, Stachybotrys, Trichoderma and other fungi, and some higher plants. They may contaminate food or feed grains, induce emesis and hemorrhage in lungs and brain, and damage bone marrow due to protein and DNA synthesis inhibition.(PubChem). It has been reported in the urine of patients suffering chronic idiopathic spastic paraparesis. These patients are usually found in hot and humid regions, most of which have heavy rains, and these conditions allow foods to be polluted by fungi some of which become toxigenic (PubMed ID 8855894 ).
Zeranol is isolated from Fusarium species. It is an anabolic agent and estrogenic agent (mainly veterinary use). Zeranol is used as a growth promoter for food animals. It was banned by the EU in 1989, but is still permitted in the USA and some other countries. It may also arise in livestock by ingestion of Fusarium contaminated pasture or feeds.

Zeranol has been shown to exhibit muscle building function (A7851).

Zeranol belongs to the family of Macrolides and Analogues. These are organic compounds containing a lactone ring of at least twelve members[1]. The term 'macrolide' encompasses a diverse family of unrelated compounds with large macrolactam rings[2].
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin A was first isolated in the fungus Helminthosporium dermatioideum. (A2910, A2911, L1913, A2912)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin C was first isolated in the fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae. (A2910, A2911, L1913, A2912)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin D is has been isolated from the fungi Metarrhizium anisopliae and Zygosporium masonii. It also possesses antibiotic and antitumor activity. (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916, A2912)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin E is has been isolated from the fungi Rosellinia necatrix and Aspergillus clavatus. It also inhibits angiogenesis and tumor growth, making it a a potential drug for age-related macular degeneration.  (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916, L1917)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin H is has been isolated from the fungus Phomopsis paspali. It also regulates plant growth and has shown CNS activity. (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Cytochalasin J is has been isolated from the fungus Phomopsis paspali. It also has shown CNS activity. (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Dihydrocytochalasin B is a semi-synthetic derivative of cytochalasin B and is a useful probe for studying cytochalasin binding sites. (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916)
Cytochalasins are mycotoxins that have the ability to bind to actin filaments and block polymerization and the elongation of actin. As a result, they can change cellular morphology, inhibit cellular processes such as cell division, and cause cells to undergo apoptosis. Cytochalasins also have the ability to permeate cell membranes, prevent cellular translocation, cause cells to enucleate, and affect other aspects of biological processes unrelated to actin polymerization. Dihydrocytochalasin B gamma-lactone is a semi-synthetic derivative of cytochalasin B and is a useful probe for studying cytochalasin binding sites. (A2910, A2911, L1913, L1916)
Ergine is an alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. As the dominant alkaloid in the hallucinogenic seeds of Rivea corymbosa, Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian baby woodrose) and Ipomoea tricolor (morning glory), it is often stated that ergine and/or isoergine (its epimer) is responsible for the psychedelic activity, though this has not been proven. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, L1919)
Ergonovine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an ergot alkaloid with uterine and vascular smooth muscle contractile properties. [PubChem] Ergonovine directly stimulates the uterine muscle to increase force and frequency of contractions. With usual doses, these contractions precede periods of relaxation; with larger doses, basal uterine tone is elevated and these relaxation periods will be decreased. Contraction of the uterine wall around bleeding vessels at the placental site produces hemostasis. Ergonovine also induces cervical contractions. The sensitivity of the uterus to the oxytocic effect is much greater toward the end of pregnancy. The oxytocic actions of ergonovine are greater than its vascular effects. Ergonovine, like other ergot alkaloids, produces arterial vasoconstriction by stimulation of alpha-adrenergic and serotonin receptors and inhibition of endothelial-derived relaxation factor release. It is a less potent vasoconstrictor than ergotamine. As a diagnostic aid (coronary vasospasm), ergonovine causes vasoconstriction of coronary arteries.
Methylergonovine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a homolog of ergonovine containing one more CH2 group (Merck Index, 11th ed). Methylergonovine acts directly on the smooth muscle of the uterus and increases the tone, rate, and amplitude of rhythmic contractions through binding and the resultant antagonism of the dopamine D1 receptor. Thus, it induces a rapid and sustained tetanic uterotonic effect which shortens the third stage of labor and reduces blood loss.
Lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide (LSH) is an alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. It is structurally is similar to LSD, with the N,N- diethylamide group replaced by an N- (1- hydroxyethyl)amide in D-lysergic acid α-hydroxyethylamide. It's effect on humans has not been thoroughly studied, but long term exposure to many ergoline alkaloids is known to cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, L1926)
Ergocristine is an alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Ergocristine is one of 3 similar peptides referred to as ergotoxine alkaloids, the other two being ergocryptine and ergocornine. Ergotoxines prepared into their hihydroergotoxine mesylates, commonly known as ergoloid mesylates, are used in the symptomatic therapy of age-related dementia. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, A2915)
Ergocornine is an alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Ergocornine is one of 3 similar peptides referred to as ergotoxine alkaloids, the other two being ergocryptine and ergocristine. Ergotoxines prepared into their hihydroergotoxine mesylates, commonly known as ergoloid mesylates, are used in the symptomatic therapy of age-related dementia. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, A2915)
Ergocryptine is an alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Ergocryptine is one of 3 similar peptides referred to as ergotoxine alkaloids, the other two being ergocristine and ergocornine. Ergotoxines prepared into their hihydroergotoxine mesylates, commonly known as ergoloid mesylates, are used in the symptomatic therapy of age-related dementia. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, A2915)
Ergovaline is an ergopeptine and alkaloid of the ergoline family. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi.  Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918)
Agroclavine is a naturally occuring alkaloid of the ergoline family. As it is derived from dimethylergoline, it is referred to as a clavine. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918)
Xanthomegnin is a mutagenic mycotoxin isolated from Penicillium citreo-viride. It is known to cause nephropathy and death in farm animals exposed to food-borne Penicillium (and Aspergillus fungi).  In humans and animals, oral intake of xanthomegnin leads to kidney and liver abnormalities, often first presenting as jaundice. Death may result. The compound has been shown to interfere with cellular respiratory processes and has given positive results in tests for genotoxic potential.
Elymoclavine is a naturally occuring alkaloid of the ergoline family. As it is derived from dimethylergoline, it is referred to as a clavine. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918)
Lysergol is an alkaloid of the ergoline  family that occurs as a minor constituent in some species of fungi (most within Claviceps), and in the morning glory family of plants (Convolvulaceae), including the hallucinogenic seeds of Rivea corymbosa (ololiuhqui), Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian baby woodrose) and Ipomoea violacea. As it is derived from dimethylergoline, it is referred to as a clavine. Lysergol can be utilized as an intermediate in the manufacture of some ergoloid medicines. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918, L1928)
Costaclavine is a naturally occuring alkaloid of the ergoline family. As it is derived from dimethylergoline, it is referred to as a clavine. Like other ergoline alkaloids, it occurs in various species of vines of the Convolvulaceae (morning glory) family and in some species of lower fungi. Long term exposure to some ergoline alkaloids can cause ergotism, a disease causing convulsive and gangrenous symptoms. (L1918)
Fumonisin B2 is from Fusarium moniliforme Fumonisin B2 is a fumonisin mycotoxin produced by the fungi Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium moniliforme. It is a structural analog of fumonisin B1. Fumonisin B2 is more cytotoxic than fumonisin B1. Fumonisin B2 inhibits sphingosine acyltransferase.

Fumonisin B2 belongs to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
3-Acetoxyscirpene-4,15-diol is a metabolite of Fusarium oxysporum. Mycotoxin

3-Acetoxyscirpene-4,15-diol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Monoacetoxyscirpenol is a mycotoxin from Fusarium roseum and Fusarium sulphureum

Monoacetoxyscirpenol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Acetyldeoxynivalenol is found in cereals and cereal products. Toxin from infected barley

Acetyldeoxynivalenol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
15-Acetyl-4-deoxynivalenol is a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearum and Gibberella zeae.
Crotocin is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
15-Deacetylcalonectrin is a metabolite of Calonectria nivalis

15-Deacetylcalonectrin belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Diacetylnivalenol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Diacetoxyscirpenol is a constituent of Fusarium species Mycotoxin.

Diacetoxyscirpenol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm).
Diacetylverrucarol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948, L1952)
Fusarenon-X is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Neosolaniol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Roridin A is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Roridin D is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Roridin E is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Satratoxin H is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. The clinical condition caused by Satratoxin H is known as Stachybotrotoxicosis. (L1948, L1953)
Scirpene is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Toxin T2 tetrol is a mycotoxin from Fusarium poae and Fusarium sporotrichioides<br /> Toxin T2 tetrol belongs to the family of Trichothecenes. These are sesquiterpene mycotoxins structurally characterized by the presence of an epoxide ring and a benzoyran derivative with a variant number of hydroxyl, acetly, or other substituents [1]. (Reference: [1] http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc105.htm)
Triacetoxyscirpenol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Trichodermin is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Trichodermol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Trichothecin is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Trichothecolone is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Verrucarin A is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Verrucarin B is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Verrucarin J is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Verrucarol is a trichothecene. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium, Myrothecium, Trichoderma, Trichothecium, Cephalosporium, Verticimonosporium, and Stachybotrys. The most important structural features causing the biological activities of trichothecenes are: the 12,13-epoxy ring, the presence of hydroxyl or acetyl groups at appropriate positions on the trichothecene nucleus and the structure and position of the side-chain. They are produced on many different grains like wheat, oats or maize by various Fusarium species such as F. graminearum, F. sporotrichioides, F. poae and F. equiseti. Some molds that produce trichothecene mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, can grow in damp indoor environments and may contribute to health problems among building occupants. (L1948)
Bovinocidin is isolated from Aspergillus sp. and moulds contaminating food

Bovinocidin belongs to the family of Beta Amino Acids and Derivatives. These are amino acids having a (-NH2) group attached to the beta carbon atom.
Aflatoxicol is a metabolite of aflatoxin B1, one of the mycotoxins from Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins are toxic and probably among the most carcinogenic substances known. They are common and widespread in nature and can colonize and contaminate grain before harvest or during storage. (L1956)
Aflatrem is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in the fungus Aspergillus flavus. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2974)
Alternariol is found in mushrooms. Alternariol occurs in mycelium of Alternaria tenuis responsible for alternaria cone disorder in hops and fruit spot on papaya (Carica papaya) and Passiflora species.Alternariol is a toxic metabolite of Alternaria fungi. It is an important contaminant in cereals and fruits.

Alternariol belongs to the family of Isocoumarins and Derivatives. These are polycyclic compounds containing an isochromane which bears a ketone at the carbon C1.
Alternariol methyl ether is an altertoxin, which is a mycotoxin of Alternaria fungi. Altertoxins are important contaminants in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, as well as in the ground, on wood or walls. Studies have shown altertoxins to be toxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic. In particular, they have been associated with esophageal cancer in humans. (A2977, A2979)
Altertoxin-1 is an altertoxin, which is a mycotoxin of Alternaria fungi. Altertoxins are important contaminants in cereals, vegetables, and fruits, as well as in the ground, on wood or walls. Studies have shown altertoxins to be toxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic. In particular, they have been associated with esophageal cancer in humans. (A2977, A2979)
Rubratoxin B is a mycotoxin produced by fungi such as Penicillum rubrum and Penicillum purpurogenum, which are common soil fungi that sometimes contaminate animal feeds. Rubratoxin B has been shown to be hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and splenotoxic. (A2985)
Rubratoxin A is a mycotoxin produced by fungi such as Penicillum rubrum and Penicillum purpurogenum, which are common soil fungi that sometimes contaminate animal feeds. Rubratoxins have been shown to be hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, and splenotoxic. Studies on Rubratoxin A however have also indicated it may also have valuable antitumor and antimetastatic effects. (A2985, A2988)
Penitrem A is a tremorgenic mycotoxin and neurotoxin found on ryegrass. It is produced by certain species of Aspergillus, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Penicillium crustosum in particular is a common foodborne fungus that causes spoilage in a wide variety of foods, including meat, cereals, nuts, cheese, eggs, fruit, and processed and refrigerated foods. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of horses and cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (L1959, A2989)
Penitrem B is a tremogenic toxin produced by by Penicillium aurantiogriseum
Penitrem C is a tremorgenic mycotoxin and neurotoxin produced by certain species of Aspergillus, Claviceps, and Penicillium. Penicillium crustosum in particular is a common foodborne fungus that causes spoilage in a wide variety of foods, including meat, cereals, nuts, cheese, eggs, fruit, and processed and refrigerated foods. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of horses and cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (L1959, A2989)
Dicumarol is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an oral anticoagulant that interferes with the metabolism of vitamin K. It is also used in biochemical experiments as an inhibitor of reductases. [PubChem] Dicumarol inhibits vitamin K reductase, resulting in depletion of the reduced form of vitamin K (vitamin KH2). As vitamin K is a cofactor for the carboxylation of glutamate residues on the N-terminal regions of vitamin K-dependent proteins, this limits the gamma-carboxylation and subsequent activation of the vitamin K-dependent coagulant proteins. The synthesis of vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors II, VII, IX, and X and anticoagulant proteins C and S is inhibited. Depression of three of the four vitamin K-dependent coagulation factors (factors II, VII, and X) results in decresed prothrombin levels and a decrease in the amount of thrombin generated and bound to fibrin. This reduces the thrombogenicity of clots.
Cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) is a myxotoxin originally isolated from Penicillium cyclopium and subsequently from Penicillium griseofulvum, Penicillium camembertii, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus versicolor. It is often found co-occurring with aflatoxins. CPA is a natural contaminant of corn, peanuts, and sunflowers, as well as various types of cheese, sausages, and salamis. It may also occur in eggs, milk and meats from animal that have consumed CPA-contaminated feed and is toxic in high concentrations. (L1961, A2999)
Citreoviridin A is a metabolite of Penicillium citreo-viride, Penicillium toxicarium, Penicillium ochrosalmoneum and Aspergillus terreus. It is isolated from mouldy rice. Toxin formerly responsible for epidemic-like occurrences of cardiac beriberi in East Asia

Citreoviridin A belongs to the family of Pyranones and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a pyran ring which bears a ketone.
Penicillic acid is a mycotoxin produced by several species of Aspergillus and Penicillium. It has antibiotic activity and is cytotoxic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic. Penicillic acid is a human health hazard because it can be found on contaminated crops such as corn. (A2957, A3013)
Beauvericin is a mycotoxin with antibiotic and insecticidal effects. It was isolated from the fungus Beauveria bassiana, but is also produced by several other fungi, including several Fusarium  species. It may therefore occur in grain (such as corn, wheat and barley) contaminated with these fungi. Beauvericin is active against Gram-positive bacteria  and mycobacteria, and is also capable of inducing programmed cell death in mammals. (L1962)
Fusaric acid is a mycotoxin found in various Fusarium species such as Fusarium moniliforme. It has been proposed for a various therapeutic applications but is primarily used as a research tool. Fusaric acid is moderately toxic and can be found in contaminated corn and cereal grains including barley, wheat, millets and sorghum. (L1963, A3020)
Fumitremorgin A (FTA) is a potent neurotropic and tremorgenic mycotoxin isolated from Aspergillus fumigatus. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect the central nervous system causing sustained tremors, convulsions, and death and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". FTA also severely affects the autonomic nervous system, likely through abnormal excitation of the central nervous system. (A2976, A3024)
Fumitremorgin B is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus caespitosus, Penicillium lanosum and Penicillium piscarium. Fumitremorgin B is isolated from A. fumigatus infected rice and miso

Fumitremorgin b belongs to the family of Indoles. These are compounds containing an indole moiety, which consists of pyrrole ring fused to benzene to form 2,3-benzopyrrole.
Fumitremorgin C is produced by Aspergillus fumigatus and Neosartorya fischeri.
Territrem B is a tremorgenic mycotoxin found in the fungus Aspergillus terreus, which has been know to contaminate rice crops. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity, with their defining characteristic being the tremors that they cause. Territrems induce this effect by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in peripheral nerve endings. (A3028, A3029)
Territrem A is a tremorgenic mycotoxin found in the fungus Aspergillus terreus, which has been know to contaminate rice crops. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity, with their defining characteristic being the tremors that they cause. Territrems induce this effect by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in peripheral nerve endings. (A3028, A3029)
Territrem C is a tremorgenic mycotoxin found in the fungus Aspergillus terreus, which has been know to contaminate rice crops. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity, with their defining characteristic being the tremors that they cause. Territrems induce this effect by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in peripheral nerve endings. (A3028, A3029)
Paspalinine is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn
and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
Asteltoxin is a mycotoxin of Aspergillus stellatus and Emericella varicolor

Asteltoxin belongs to the family of Furofurans. These are organic compounds containing a two furan rings fused to each other.
Aurovertin B is a mycotoxin and antibiotic produced by the fungus Calcarisporium arbuscula. It is known for its ability to inhibit oxidative phosphorylation. (A3002, A3032)
Aurovertin B is a mycotoxin and antibiotic produced by the fungus Calcarisporium arbuscula. It is known for its ability to inhibit oxidative phosphorylation. (A3002, A3032)
Arisugacin A is a tremorgenic mycotoxin found in various fungi of the genus Penicillium. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity, with their defining characteristic being the tremors that they cause. Arisugacins induce this effect by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase in peripheral nerve endings. (A2976, A3035)
Butenolide is a mycotoxin found in various species of fungi of the genus Fusarium. It can often be found in contaminated agricultural products. Butenolide had been implicated as the causative agent of a livestock mycotoxicosis called “fescue foot”, a peripheral vascular disorder occurring in cattle grazing on tall fescue grass. Butenolide is also one of the mycotoxins which have been considered as a suspected etiological factor for Kaschin-Beck disease (an endemic osteoarthropathy) and Keshan disease (an endemic cardiomyopathy), prevailing in some regions of China, and several studies have also indicated that butenolide can cause cartilage damage. (A3036, A3039)
Emestrin is a mycotoxin produced by fungi of the genus Emericella. It mainly targets the heart, liver and thymus. Its action at the chemokine receptor has lead to its consideration as a possible treatment for autoimmune disorders including rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and infectious diseases. (A3040, A3041)
Emodin is found in dock. Emodin is present in Cascara sagrada.Emodin is a purgative resin from rhubarb, Polygonum cuspidatum, the buckthorn and Japanese Knotweed (Fallopia japonica). The term may also refer to any one of a series of principles isomeric with the emodin of rhubarb. (Wikipedia) 

Emodin has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory, signalling, antibiotic, muscle building and anti-angiogenic functions (A3049, A7853, A7854, A7855, A7857).
Enniatins are mycotoxins that appear in nature as a mixture of cyclohexadepsipeptides produced by bacteria, fungi, and plants. They may be found in contaminated cereal crops. Enniatins have various biological activities and can act as enzyme inhibitors, antifungal and antibacterial agents, and immunomodulatory substances. (L1965, A3055)
Enniatins are mycotoxins that appear in nature as a mixture of cyclohexadepsipeptides produced by bacteria, fungi, and plants. They may be found in contaminated cereal crops. Enniatins have various biological activities and can act as enzyme inhibitors, antifungal and antibacterial agents, and immunomodulatory substances. (L1965, A3055)
Enniatins are mycotoxins that appear in nature as a mixture of cyclohexadepsipeptides produced by bacteria, fungi, and plants. They may be found in contaminated cereal crops. Enniatins have various biological activities and can act as enzyme inhibitors, antifungal and antibacterial agents, and immunomodulatory substances. (L1965, A3055)
Enniatins are mycotoxins that appear in nature as a mixture of cyclohexadepsipeptides produced by bacteria, fungi, and plants. They may be found in contaminated cereal crops. Enniatins have various biological activities and can act as enzyme inhibitors, antifungal and antibacterial agents, and immunomodulatory substances. (L1965, A3055)
Fumagillin is a mycotoxin found in the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. It is an antimicrobial agent and amebicide that has been used in the treatment of microsporidiosis and other infections, especially in immunodeficient patients. It also has been investigated as a angiogenesis inhibitor in the treatment of cancer. Since fumagillin is often used to treat microsporidiosis in bees, it can be found as a contaminant in honey. (L1966, A3058)
Janthitrem B is produced by Penicillium janthinellum. Tremorgenic mycotoxin

Janthitrem B belongs to the family of Diterpenes. These are terpene compounds formed by four isoprene units.
Janthitrem C is produced by Penicillium janthinellum. Tremorgenic mycotoxin.
Janthitrem E is produced by Penicillium janthinellum. Tremorgenic mycotoxin

Janthitrem e belongs to the family of Diterpenes. These are terpene compounds formed by four isoprene units.
Janthitrem F is produced by Penicillium janthinellum. Tremorgenic mycotoxin

Janthitrem F belongs to the family of Diterpenes. These are terpene compounds formed by four isoprene units.
Janthitrem G is produced by Penicillium janthinellum. Tremorgenic mycotoxin

Janthitrem G belongs to the family of Diterpenes. These are terpene compounds formed by four isoprene units.
Paspalinine is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that is produced by the fungi Neotyphodium lolii and Acremonium lolii. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes" or “ryegrass staggers”. (A2976, A3066, A3068)
Luteoskyrin is a mycotoxin produced by the fungus Penicillium islandicum. It is known to be a storage mold contaminant of rice and has been shown to be hepatotoxic and hepatocarcinogenic. (A3069, A3070)
Kojic acid is a synthetic intermediate for production of food additives.

Kojic acid has been shown to exhibit anti-neoplastic function (A7859).
Moniliformin is a mycotoxin produced by a number of fungi of the Fusarium species. It can by found in contaminated cereal crops and is known to be a lethal food contaminant to fowl as well as a cause of Kashin-Beck disease in humans. (L1969, A3075)
Secalonic acid D (SAD) is a mycotoxin produced by the fungus Pencillium oxalicum, which is a common contaminant in corn and other grains. Secalonic acid D is a human teratogen that induces cleft palate.  (A3088)
Slaframine is a mycotoxin produced by the fungus Rizoctonia leguminicola. It is a parasympathomimetic compound and causes increased exocrine function, especially salivation. Along with swainsonine, the other biologially active compound of R. leguminicola, it is known to cause a condition called "slobbers syndrome" in livestock that has ingested contaminated feed. (A3091, A3092)
Sporidesmin is a mycotoxin found in the spores of the fungus Pithomyces chartarum. It is a potent hepatotoxin and is known to cause pithomycotoxicosis (facial eczema, characterized by photosensitisation) in livestock. (A3095)
Paspalitrem A is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
Paspalitrem B is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
Paspalicine is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
Tremorgenic agent from Penicillium paxilli, Acremonium lorii, Emericella foveolata, Emericella desertorum and Emericella striata Paxilline is a potassium channel blocker. Paxilline is a toxic, tremorgenic indole alkaloid produced by Penicillium paxilli.

Paxilline belongs to the family of Diterpenes. These are terpene compounds formed by four isoprene units.
Verrucosidin is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
Verruculogen is a tremorgenic mycotoxin that has been found in fungi of the genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. It may be found in contaminated cereal crops such as oats, barley, millet, corn and rice. Tremorgenic mycotoxins affect central nervous system activity and have been implicated in a number of neurologic diseases of cattle collectively known as "staggers syndromes". (A2976)
2,5-Pyridinedicarboxylic acid, dipropyl ester is also known as Repellent MGK 326. It was initially registered by the USDA in 1957 as an insect repellent for livestock.  MGK Repellent 326 works to broaden the spectrum of repellency of insect repellents, such as DEET (N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide) or pyrethrins, to repel flies, gnats, and other flying and biting insects. It functions as an insect attractant, an insect repellent and chemosterilant.  It is still widely used as an insect repellent.
6-Deisopropylatrazine is a chlorinated degradation product of the herbicide atrazine (6-chloro-N2-ethyl-N4-isopropyl-1, 3,5-triazine-2,4-diamine). Atrazine is a herbicide of the triazine class. Atrazine is used to prevent pre and post-emergence broadleaf weeds in crops such as maize (corn) and sugarcane and on turf, such as golf courses and residential lawns. It is one of the most widely used herbicides in the US and in Australian agriculture.] It was banned in the European Union in 2004 because of persistent groundwater contamination. As of 2001, Atrazine was the most commonly detected pesticide contaminating drinking water in the United States. Studies suggest atrazine is an endocrine disruptor and it is thought that 6-Deisopropylatrazine may also have some endocrine disruptor capacity. Pesticide degradates account for a significant portion of the pesticide/herbicide load in surface water. t is a registered US EPA substance.
Acephate is an organophosphate foliar insecticide of moderate persistence with residual systemic activity of about 10–15 days at the recommended use rate. It is used primarily for control of aphids, including resistant species, in vegetables (e.g. potatoes, carrots, greenhouse tomatoes, and lettuce) and in horticulture (e.g. on roses and greenhouse ornamentals). It also controls leaf miners, caterpillars, sawflies and thrips in the previously stated crops as well as turf, and forestry. By direct application to mounds, it is effective in destroying imported fire ants.
Acibenzolar-S-methyl is a fungicide that works by activating a plant's own defense system by increasing the transcription of W-box controlled genes such as CAD1, NPR1 and PR2. It is a methyl derivative of acibenzolar.
Acifluorfen is an herbicide. It is effective against broadleaf weeds and grasses and is used agriculturally on fields growing soybeans, peanuts, peas, and rice.  Also registered as a spot treatment for residential use along driveways, sidewalks, and patios. acifluorfen has low acute toxicity via the oral, dermal, and inhalation routes of exposure, but causes severe eye irritation and moderate skin irritation. acifluorfen is currently classified as a B2 chemical carcinogen (probable human carcinogen).
Ametryn, a member of the Triazine chemical family, is a herbicide which inhibits photosynthesis and other enzymatic processes. It is used to control broadleaf weeds and annual grasses in pineapple, sugarcane and bananas. It is used on corn and potato crops for general weed control. It is also used as a vine desiccant on dry beans and potatoes. The EPA classifies it as Toxicity Class III, slightly toxic. Symptoms of acute exposure to high doses include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle weakness, and salivation.
Amitraz (development code BTS27419) is a non-systemic acaricide and insecticide. Kinetics and mechanism of amitraz hydrolysis in aqueous media by HPLC and GC-MS. It was first synthesized by the Boots Co. in England in 1969. Amitraz has been found to have an insect repellent effect, works as an insecticide and also as a pesticide synergist. Its effectiveness is traced back on alpha-adrenergic agonist activity, interaction with octopamine receptors of the central nervous system and inhibition of monoamine oxidases and prostaglandin synthesis. Therefore, it leads to overexcitation and consequently paralysis and death in insects. Because amitraz is less harmful to mammals, amitraz is among many other purposes best known as insecticide against mite- or tick-infestation of dogs.
Anilazine (ǎ-nǐl-a-zēn) is an organic compound with the chemical formula C9H5Cl3N4. It is a pesticide used on crops. It comes under the category of triazine fungicides. It is used for controlling fungus diseases which attack lawns and turf, cereals, coffee, and a wide variety of vegetables and other crops. It is also used for the control of potato and tomato leafspots.
Azamethiphos is an organophosphorus insecticide that acts by inhibition of cholinesterase activity. In veterinary medicine it is used in fish farming to control external parasites in Atlantic salmon. It exhibits moderate acute oral toxicity to mammals but has high acute oral toxicity to birds.
Azoxystrobin (brand name Amistar, Syngenta) is a fungicide commonly used in agriculture. Azoxystrobin possesses the broadest spectrum of activity of all known antifungals. The substance is used as an active agent protecting plants and fruit/vegetables from fungal diseases. Azoxystrobin binds very tightly to the Qo site of Complex III of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, thereby ultimately preventing the generation of ATP. Azoxystrobin is widely used in farming, particularly in wheat farming.
Benfluralin is an herbicide of the dinitroaniline class. It is used to control grasses and other weeds. Annual use in the United States was approximately 700,000 pounds in 2004.
Bensulide is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an herbicide. It functions by inhibiting cell division in meristematic root tissues and seedling growth by conjugation of acetyl co-enzyme.
Bifenazate is a pesticide use for control of mite pests on greenhouse, shadehouse, nursery, field, landscape and interiorscape grown ornamental plants. Bifenazate possesses low acute toxicity by all routes of exposure (Category IV) with no evidence of dermal sensitization potential. It is non-irritating to skin and minimally irritating to eyes. Bifenazate is negative for mutagenic potential in a battery of required mutagenicity studies.
Boric acid (H3BO3) also called hydrogen borate, boracic acid, orthoboric acid is a weak acid of boron often used as an antiseptic, insecticide, flame retardant, neutron absorber, or precursor to other chemical compounds. It has the chemical formula H3BO3 (sometimes written B(OH)3), and exists in the form of colorless crystals or a white powder that dissolves in water. When occurring as a mineral, it is called sassolite. Borate is a food contaminant deriving from paper and paperboard in contact with food. It has limited use as an antibacterial agent in caviar.
Boscalid is a fungicide developed by BASF and launched in 2003 for use on food crops. It works as a succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor to kill fungal target organisms. It is practically nontoxic to terrestrial animals and is moderately toxic to aquatic animals on an acute exposure basis. In subchronic and chronic feeding studies in rats, mice and dogs, boscalid generally caused decreased body weights and body weight gains (primarily in mice) and effects on the liver (increase in weights, changes in enzyme levels and histopathological changes) as well as on the thyroid (increase in weights and histopathological changes). In a developmental toxicity study in rats, no developmental toxicity was observed in the fetuses at the highest dose tested. Boscalid is classified as, suggestive evidence of carcinogenicity, but not sufficient to assess human carcinogenic potential, according to the EPA.
Bromacil is an organic compound with the chemical formula C9H13BrN2O2, commercially available as an herbicide. Bromacil was first registered as a pesticide in the U.S. in 1961. It is used for brush control and non-cropland areas. It works by interfering with photosynthesis by entering the plant through the root zone and moving throughout the plant. Bromacil is one of a group of compounds called substituted uracils. These materials are broad spectrum herbicides used for nonselective weed and brush control on non-croplands, as well as for selective weed control on a limited number of crops, such as citrus fruit and pineapple. Bromacil is also found to be excellent at controlling perennial grasses.
Buprofezin is a thiadiazine insect growth regulator acting as moulting inhibitor for the persistent larvicidal action against some Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Acarina. Because the chemical itself is very specific to the certain insects, It is a most successful insect growth regulator in the world for Homopterous insects such as plant hoppers, whiteflies and scale insects, and is widely used in more than 80 countries. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) as third-generation insecticides have a specific mode of action on insects and a lower toxicity against vertebrates than most conventional insecticides
Butafenacil is a herbicide belonging to the pyrimidindione chemical class. Butafenacil is intended for use as a cotton defoliant. Subchronic toxicity caused by butafenacil is characterized primarily by hematological effects such as, decreased hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and mean corpuscular volume (MCV), and increased red cell volume.
Captan is the name of a general use pesticide (GUP) that belongs to the phthalimide class of fungicides. Though it can be applied on its own, Captan is often added as a component of other pesticide mixtures. It is used to control diseases on a number of fruits and vegetables as well as ornamental plants. It also improves the outward appearance of many fruits, making them brighter and healthier-looking. Captan is thought to be a potential carcinogen at prolonged high doses that cause cytotoxicity and regenerative cell hyperplasia. These high doses of captan are many orders of magnitude above those likely to be consumed in the diet, or encountered by individuals in occupational or residential settings. Therefore, captan is not likely to be a human carcinogen nor pose cancer risks of concern.
Carfentrazone-ethyl is a contact herbicide used to control broadleaf and sedge weeds in cereals.  The mode of action of carfentrazone-ethyl is the disruption of membranes by inhibiting the action of protoporphyrinogen oxidase, causing cell death.  Carfentrazone is non-selective, and can be used for complete vegetation control, as well as as a desiccant and a defoliant in some crops.  
Chloridazon is a selective herbicide belonging to the group of pyridazone - derivatives , which was put on the market by BASF in the 1960s and used mainly in beet cultivation to control annual broad-leafed weeds. It acts by inhibiting photosynthesis and the Hill reaction and is rapidly absorbed through the roots of plants with tranlocation acropetally to all plant parts.
Chloroneb (1,4-dichloro-2,5-dimethoxybenzene) is a chlorinated dimethoxybenzene.  It is used as a fungicide and is currently registered for use on a wide variety of food crops but is primarily used for pre-plant cottonseed treatment as well as on commercial turf and ornamentals. The markets for chloroneb seed treatment uses include: sugar beets, soybeans, cotton, and beans. Chloroneb has been shown to have low dermal, oral and inhalation toxicity. It is classified as Toxicity Category IV for oral ingestion, dermal toxicity, and inhalation toxicity, and Toxicity Category III for eye irritation. Chloroneb is a dermal sensitizer.
Chlorpyrifos-methyl is a pyridine organothiophosphate insecticide. It is a general use organophosphate insecticide registered in 1985 for use on stored grain (for protection of stored food, feed oil, and seed grains against injury from stored grain weevils, moths, borers, beetles and mealworms including granary weevil, rice weevil, red flour beetle, confused flour beetle, saw-toothed grain beetle, Indian meal moth, and Angoumois grain moth, lessor grain borers), seed treatment, grain bin and warehouse. Chlorpyrifos-methyl can cause cholinesterase inhibition in humans; that is, it can overstimulate the nervous system causing nausea, dizziness, confusion, and at very high exposures (e.g., accidents or major spills), respiratory paralysis and death. In addition, systemic toxicity may include body weight loss, decreased food consumption, liver, kidney and adrenal pathology.
Chlorsulfuron is a triazine herbicide that is recommended for selective control of weeds in wheat (pre- and/or postemergent to crop) and barley (postemergent to crop) as well as reduced tillage fallow preceding wheat.  Controls most broadleaf and some grass weeds.
Cinmethylin is a herbicide developed for the selective pre-emergence control of many annual grass weeds in a wide range of temperate and tropical crops. It was developed as a herbicide for use in transplanted rice at low application rates. The herbicide works by inhibiting tyrosine aminotransferase activity in target plants. This blocks the conversion of tyrosine to 4-HPP (4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate).
Clofentezine is an acaricide used for the residual control of mites. It acts primarily as an ovicide, with some activity on early motile stages. Used on a wide range of crops – apples, pears, stone fruit, nuts, ornamentals, almonds etc. The main toxicological effects seen in studies in rats and dogs were hepatotoxicity and changes to the thyroid, including follicular hyperplasia. Clofentezine does not pose a high toxicity risk to humans.
Cloprop is a herbicide belonging to the phenoxypropionic class of compounds. It is rarely used. It is absorbed by foliage but not significantly translocated.
Clopyralid-olamine is a picolinic acid herbicide belonging to the general class of pyridine herbicides. It is a derivative of clopyralid. It is used as a selective systemic herbicide, absorbed by the leaves and roots, with translocation both acropetally and basipetally, and accumulation in meristematic tissue. It exhibits an auxin-type reaction and acts on cell elongation.
Clorophene is used as an antiseptic agent and a disinfectant in hospitals and restaurants.
Cyanamide is an organic compound with the formula CN2H2. This white solid is widely used in agriculture and the production of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. It is also used as an alcohol deterrent drug in Canada, Europe and Japan. The molecule features a nitrile group attached to an amino group. Although it is similar in structure to hydrogen cyanide, it is not as toxic. Derivatives of this compound are also referred to as cyanamides, the most common being calcium cyanamide (CaCN2). Calcium cyanamide or CaCN2 is a calcium compound used as fertilizer, first synthesized in 1898 by Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro (Frank-Caro process). It is formed when calcium carbide reacts with nitrogen. It is commercially known as Nitrolime. In enzymology, a cyanamide hydratase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction.
Cyanazine is sold by DuPont Chemical as Bladex, and has been in use since 1971. In the 1990s it was the fourth most widely used synthetic chemical pesticide in U.S. agriculture. Cyanazine is a triazine herbicide and is used as a pre- and post-emergent herbicide to control annual grasses and broadleaf weeds. It is used mostly on corn, some on cotton, and less than 1% on grain sorghum and wheat fallow. Cyanazine is classified by the EPA as a Restricted Use Pesticide (RUP) because of its teratogenicity and because it has been found in groundwater. Cyanazine can cause a variety of birth defects in animals over a wide range of doses. In a long-term study of rats fed cyanazine, moderate doses resulted in increased brain weights and decreased kidney weights in third generation offspring.
Cyhalofop-butyl is an aryloxyphenoxy propionic acid herbicide. It is a graminicide (kills grass and weeds) used for postemergence grass weed control in rice
Cyomaxinil is a fungicide which was first introduced in 1977. It is an acetimide compound used as both a curative and preventative foliar fungicide. In Europe it is being sold for use on grapes, potatoes, tomatoes, hops, sugarbeets and other vegetable crops. Cymoxanil is currently not registered in the U.S. Cymoxanil's mode of action is as a local systemic. It penetrates rapidly and when inside the plant, it cannot be washed off by rain. It controls diseases during the incubation period and prevents the appearance of damage on the crop. The fungicide is primarily active on fungi belonging to the Peronosporales order: Phytophthora, Plasmopara, and Peronospora. Cymoxanil has low acute and chronic toxicity
Cyprodinil is a fungicide that acts by inhibition of germ tube elongation and hyphal mycelia. Cyprodinil is applied to the foliage of almonds, grapes, stone fruit crops, and pome fruit crops to control plant diseases.
Daminozide — also known as Alar, Kylar, B-NINE, DMASA, SADH, or B 995 — is a plant growth regulator, a chemical sprayed on fruit to regulate their growth, make their harvest easier, and keep apples from falling off the trees before they are ripe. This makes sure they are red and firm for storage. Alar was first approved for use in the U.S. in 1963, it was primarily used on apples until 1989 when it was voluntarily withdrawn by the manufacturer after the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency proposed banning it based on unacceptably high cancer risks to consumers.
Dazomet is a common soil fumigant that acts as a herbicide, fungicide, and nematicide. Dazomet is used as a soil sterilant on a variety of sites such as golf courses, nurseries, turf sites, and potting soils.[2] Dazomet is used for soil sterilization as an alternative to methyl bromide. Although less effective it is still used to kill pests because of its comparatively lower toxicity. Dazomet is applied to wet soil, which causes dazomet itself to decompose into a gaseous form, which is what actively controls pests. The decomposition of dazomet releases methyl isothiocyanate (MITC) a gas toxic to pests that would prevent or kill plant growth. Dazomet is irritating to the eyes and its degradation product, MITC, is a dermal sensitizer. Dazomet is very toxic to aquatic organisms, and also acutely toxic to mammals.
Dichloran is an amine fungicide. It inhibits fungi from spreading and restricts colony size and is commonly used in agar media for enumeration and isolation of yeasts and molds from dried and semi-dried foods, including fruits, spices, cereals, nuts, meat, and fish products.
Diclofop-methyl is a polycyclic alkanoic acid herbicide. Diclofop-methyl undergoes hydrolysis to form diclofop-acid a compound that also exhibits herbicidal properties. Diclofop-methyl was registered in Canada in 1977 and is sold under the tradename Hoe-Grass. Diclofop-methyl is used for postemergence control of wild oats, wild millets, and other annual grass weeds in wheat, barley, rye, red fescue, and broad-leaved crops such as soya beans, sugar beet, flax, legumes, potatoes, and cucumbers. Diclofop-methyl is a selective systemic herbicide that is used primarily in the prairies. It destroys the cell membrane, prevents the translocation of assimilates to the roots, reduces the chlorophyll content, and inhibits photosynthesis and meristem activity.
Diclosulam is a herbicide. It is primarily used for control of annual and certain perennial broadleaf weeds when applied as soil, foliar, or burndown treatments in crops such as sugar cane, peanuts and soybeans, as well as forestry applications. Diclosulam technical is very highly toxic to aquatic organisms on an acute basis. It is practically nontoxic to birds, mammals, insects, earthworms, fish and aquatic invertebrates.
Dicrotophos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. Some common brand names for dicrotophos include Bidrin, Carbicron, Diapadrin, Dicron and Ektafos.
Diethyltoluamide, abbreviated DEET, is a slightly yellow oil. It is the most common active ingredient in insect repellents. It is intended to be applied to the skin or to clothing, and provides protection against mosquitos, ticks, fleas, chiggers, and many other biting insects.
Difenoconazole is a broad spectrum fungicide that controls a wide variety of fungi – including members of the Aschomycetes, Basidomycetes and Deuteromycetes families.  It acts as a seed treatment, foliar spray and systemic fungicide.  It is taken up through the surface of the infected plant and is translocated to all parts of the plant. It has a curative effect and a preventative effect.  Difenoconazole can be applied to winter wheat, oilseed rape, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, broccoli/calabrese and cauliflower. It controls various fungi including Septoria tritici, Brown Rust, Light Leaf Spot, Leaf Spot, Pod Spot, Ring Spot and Stem canker. It also prevents Ear Discolouration in winter wheat.  The mode of action of difenoconazole is that it is a sterol demethylation inhibitor which prevents the development of the fungus by inhibiting cell membrane ergosterol biosynthesis.
Difenzoquat metilsulfate is a pyrazole herbicide. It is a derivative of difenzoquat. It is used as a postemergence herbicide to control wild oats in alfalfa, wheat and barley.
Dimethenamid is a widely used herbicide. In 2001, about 7 million pounds of dimethenamid were used in the United States. 2000-2001 Pesticide Market Estimates, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Dimethenamid is registered for control of annual grasses, certain annual broadleaf weeds and sedges in field corn, seed corn, popcorn and soybeans. Supplemental labeling also allows use on sweet corn.
Emamectin benzoate (Proclaim) is an avermectin class insecticide developed for the control of lepidopteron insects. This class of pesticide consists of homologous semi-synthetic macrolides that are derived from the natural fermentation products of Streptomyces bacteria. It kills insects by disrupting neurotransmitters, causing irreversible paralysis. It is more effective when ingested, but it also somewhat effective on contact. When sprayed to foliage, emamectin benzoate penetrates the leaf tissue and forms reservoir within treated leaves, which provides residual activity against pests that ingest the substance when feeding. Emamectin is widely used in the US and Canada as an insecticide because of its chloride channel activation properties. It is approved by the EPA for use in prevention of emerald ash borer in ash trees. Emamectin has also shown promising applications in the eradication of fish lice and in fish farming.
Ethalfluralin is a selective herbicide used for the preemergence control of annual grasses and broadleaf weeds in certain food and feed crops. It is marketed under the trade name Sonalan. Ethalfluralin may be used in growing a variety of grain, seed, and cucurbit crops. The greatest amounts of ethalfluralin are used in growing soybeans, dry beans, and sunflower seeds. Ethalfluralin causes moderate eye irritation and moderate to severe skin irritation, and has been placed in Toxicity Category II. It also is a skin sensitizer. Ethalfluralin otherwise is of relatively low acute toxicity.
Ethephon is the word’s most widely used plant growth regulator. It is manufactured by Rhône-Poulenc (Bayer Crop Science). Upon metabolism by the plant, it is converted into ethylene, a potent regulator of plant growth and maturity. It is often used on wheat, coffee, tobacco, cotton, and rice in order to help the plant's fruit reach maturity more quickly. Cotton is the most important single crop use for ethephon. It initiates fruiting over a period of several weeks, and enhances defoliation to facilitate and improve efficiency of scheduled harvesting. Ethephon also is widely used by pineapple growers to initiate reproductive development of pineapple. Ethephon is also sprayed on mature-green pineapple fruits to degreen them to meet produce marketing requirements. The toxicity of ethephon is actually very low, and any ethephon used on the plant is converted very quickly to ethylene.
Etoxazole is an insecticide use to control spider mites infesting indoor (greenhouse, lath and shade house) grown ornamental crops including flowering and foliage crops, ground covers, shrubs and trees and non-bearing fruit and nuts trees. Etoxazole is a member of the oxazoline class of insecticides. It kills mite eggs and nymphs and prevents adults from laying viable eggs. Etoxazole is readily absorbed by the plant and will translocate locally in the leaf. The insecticidal mode of action of etoxazole is chitin biosynthesis inhibition. Etoxazole induces moulting defects in fall armyworm larvae similar to those caused by benzoylphenylureas, a well-known class of insecticidal chitin biosynthesis inhibitors.
Trichloroacetonitrile is an organic compound with the formula CCl3CN. It is a colourless liquid, although commercial samples often are brownish. It is used commercially as a precursor to the fungicide etridiazole. It is prepared by dehydration of trichloroacetamide.
Fenamidone is a foliar fungicide used on grapes, ornamentals, potatoes, tobacco, and vegetables. It exerts its fungicidal effects by acting as a Qo inhibitor.
Fenamiphos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor insecticide (nematicide) used to control a wide variety of nematode (round worm) pests. Nematodes can live as parasites on or within a plant. They may be free living or associated with cyst and root-knot formations in plants. Fenamiphos is used on a variety of plants including tobacco, cocoa, turf, bananas, pineapples, citrus and other fruit vines, and on some vegetables and grains. The compound is absorbed by the roots and is then transported throughout the plant. Fenamiphos, similar to other organophosphates, blocks the enzyme acetyl cholinesterase in the target pest. The enzyme regulates inter-cellular activity. The pesticide is also active against non-target invertebrates such as sucking insects and spider mites.
Fenhexamid is a locally systemic, protectant fungicide. Fenhexamid prevents fungi from infecting plants by inhibiting spore germination and mycelial growth. The fungicide is absorbed into the outer waxy layer of plant surfaces and is protected from being washed off by rainfall or irrigation. Used for control of Botrytis diseases on grapes, greenhouse tomatoes, ornamentals and berry crops, including blackberries, blueberries, currants, loganberries, raspberries and strawberries; and Monilinia brown rot on cherries, peaches and nectarines.
Fenitrothion is an organophospahate insecticide that has been used since 1959 to control insects on rice, cereals, fruits, vegetables, stored grains, cotton, to control insects in forests and for fly, mosquito, and cockroach control in public health programs. Between 15 000 and 20 000 tons of fenitrothion are produced per year. The health effects of finitrothion are consistent with those of other organophosphates and are the result of cholinesterase inhibition.
Fluazifop-butyl is an aryloxyphenoxypropionic herbicide used for postemergence control of annual and perennial grass weeds. This substance is a derivative of fluazifop. Fluazifop-butyl is a different compound than either fluazifop or fluazifop-p-butyl. Both the chemical structures and the toxicities of these compounds are different. Fluazifop-p-butyl formulations can contain some fluazifop-butyl.
Fluazifop-p-butyl is a selective phenoxy herbicide used for postemergence control of annual and perennial grass weeds. It is used on soybeans and other broad-leaved crops such as carrots, spinach, potatoes, and ornamentals. Fluazifop-p-butyl is a general use pesticide. Fluazifop-p-butyl is a different compound than either fluazifop or fluazifop butyl. Both the chemical structures and the toxicities of these compounds are different. Fluazifop-p-butyl formulations can contain some fluazifop-butyl. Fluazifop-p-butyl is a slightly toxic compound. A single ingested dose can cause severe stomach and intestine disturbance. Ingestion of large quantities may cause problems in the central nervous system such as drowsiness, dizziness, loss of coordination and fatigue. Breathing small amounts of the product may cause vomiting and severe lung congestion.
Fluazinam is a broad-spectrum fungicide used in agriculture. It is classed as a diarylamine and more specifically an arylaminopyridine. The mode of action involves the compound being an extremely potent uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and also having high reactivity with thiols. It is unique amongst uncouplers in displaying broad-spectrum activity against fungi and also very low toxicity to mammals due to it being rapidly metabolised to a compound without uncoupling activity. Fluazinam is a protectant fungicide, but is neither systemic or curative. It acts by inhibiting the germination of spores and the development of infection structures. Although it has activity against many fungi, it is less potent against rusts and powdery mildew and as such has not been commercialised for use in cereal crops. It is widely used to control late blight (P. infestans) in potato due to its activity against the zoospores of the pathogen which makes it particularly effective at controlling infection of the potato tubers.
Flufenacet is a thiadiazole herbicide which is applied to the soil surface or incorporated preemergence in field corn, corn grown for silage, or soybeans to control certain annual grasses and broadleaf weeds.
Flufenpyr-ethyl is a contact herbicide for use on potatoes, maize, soya and wheat to control broad-leaved weeds.
Flumetsulam is a sulfonanilide herbicide that is used for post-emergence control for undersown wheat and certain legume crops and pastures.
Flumiclorac-pentyl is a post-emergence herbicide used against broad-leaved weeds in soybeans and maize
Flumioxazin is a broad-spectrum contact herbicide. It works by interfering with the plants’ production of chlorophyll. Treated plants will respond quickly to treatment and rapidly decompose. Flumioxazin is an N-phenylphthalimide herbicide. The mode of action in this family of herbicides is believed to be inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase, an enzyme important in the synthesis of chlorophyll. Mechanistic study findings suggest that porphyrins accumulate in susceptible plants causing photosensitization, which leads to membrane lipid peroxidation. The peroxidation of membrane lipids leads to irreversible damage of membrane function and structure in susceptible plants. Treatment of soil with flumioxazin will cause susceptible emerging plants to turn necrotic and die shortly after exposure to sunlight. Flumioxazin is used on soybeans, peanuts, orchard fruits and other crops. Flumioxazin is also used to controls invasive Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) and curlyleaf pondweed (Potamogeton crispus). Flumioxazin has been used as an agricultural chemical since 2001, and was conditionally registered for aquatic use in 2010.
Fluroxypyr is an herbicide in the class of synthetic auxins. It is used to control broadleaf weeds and woody brush. It is formulated as the 1-methylheptyl ester (fluroxypyr-MHE).
Fluroxypyr-meptyl is an esterified form of the herbicide fluroxypyr (it is a pro-herbicide, similar to a pro-drug). After predominantly foliar uptake, the ester is hydrolyzed to the parent acid, which is the herbicidally active form. Fluroxypyr is a pyridine-based herbicide used to control established broadleaf weeds and woody brush. It is registered for use on corn, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, forage, hay, onions, fallow cropland, industrial sites, and rights-of-way, as well as home lawns and recreational sites such as golf courses, parks, and sports fields
Flusilazole (DPX-H6573) is an organosilicon fungicide invented by DuPont, which is used to control fungal infections on a variety of fruit and vegetable crops. It is moderately toxic to animals and has been shown to produce birth defects and embryotoxicity at high doses.
Fluthiacet-methyl is an imine herbicide that applied to actively growing weeds in soybeans to control annual broadleaf weeds, and is particularly effective in controlling velvetleaf. It is classified in toxicity category III [CAUTION] based on its acute dermal toxicity
Flutolanil is a systemic fungicide. It is an inhibitor of an enzyme complex that is required for the respiration, and thus inhibits the synthesis of glutamate and aspartate. Flutolanil is used as a dusting powder for disinfection of seed potatoes before or during planting, against black scurf. Flutolanil has low acute toxicity to mammals. It is not genotoxic, carcinogenic or teratogenic.
Folpet is a protective leaf-fungicide. Its mode of action inhibits normal cell division of a broad spectrum of microorganisms. It is used to control cherry leaf spot, rose mildew, rose black spot, and apple scab. Used on berries, flowers, ornamentals, fruits and vegetables, and for seed- and plant-bed treatment. Also used as a fungicide in paints and plastics, and for treatment of internal and external structural surfaces of buildings. Folpet has low acute toxicity to mammals. It is slighly toxic to birds and bees, and is moderately toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates, algae and earthworms. Folpet is very irritating to the eyes and repeated or prolonged contact leads to skin sensitization. Chronic exposure tests showed folpet to be carcinogenic in mice (but not rats). On this basis, folpet is considered possibly carcinogenic to humans.
Fosthiazate is a member of the organophosphate class of pesticides or nematicides and is used to control nematodes species on tomatoes.
Halosulfuron-methyl is a selective herbicide for post-emergence control of sedges and other weeds in turf. It is also used on maize, sugarcane and rice. It interferes with the function of the acetolactate synthase enzyme, resulting in a rapid cessation of cell division and plant growth in both roots and shoots. In sulfite-sensitive individuals, skin reactions have been reported following dermal exposure.
Hexazinone is an organic compound that is used as a broad spectrum herbicide. It is a colorless solid. It exhibits some solubility in water but is highly soluble in most organic solvents except alkanes. A member of the triazine class herbicides, it is manufactured by DuPont and sold under the trade name Velpar.
HPTE or 2,2-bis(p-hydroxyphenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane is a biologically active liver metabolite of methoxychlor. Methoxychlor is a commonly used pesticide.
Icaridin, also known as picaridin, KBR 3023, under the INCI name hydroxyethyl isobutyl piperidine carboxylate, and the trade names Bayrepel and Saltidin, is an insect repellent. It has broad efficacy against different insects and is almost colorless and odorless.
Enilconazole (synonyms imazalil, chloramizole) is a fungicide widely used in agriculture, particularly in the growing of citrus fruits. Trade names include Freshgard, Fungaflor, and Nuzone.
Imazamox is a member of the imidazolinone class of herbicides. It is registered for post-emergence control of broadleaf weeds and grass in alfalfa, edible legumes and soybeans. It is a systemic herbicide that moves throughout the plant tissue and prevents plants from producing an essential enzyme, acetolactate synthase (ALS), which is not found in animals. This enzyme is key for the biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids. Susceptible plants will stop growing soon after treatment, but plant death and decomposition will occur over several weeks.
Imazapic is a chemical used as an herbicide. It controls many broad leaf weeds and controls or suppresses some grasses in pasture, rangeland and certain types of turf. It has a half-life of around 120 days in soil.
Imazaquin is primarily used as a herbicide to control weed growth on lawns and turf fields. Due to the fact that it is highly effective and selective, it is one of the most commonly used herbicides.It is classified as an imidazolinone herbicide Imazaquin inhibits the acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) enzyme which is responsible for the synthesis of the branched chain amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. When applied, imazaquin halts weed growth which eventually kills the weed or causes the weed to die due to its incapability to compete with surrounding vegetation.
Indoxacarb is an oxadiazine pesticide developed by DuPont that acts against lepidopteran larvae. It is marketed under the names Indoxacarb Technical Insecticide, Steward Insecticide and Avaunt Insecticide. It is also used as the active ingredient in DuPont's line of commercial pesticides: Advion and Arilon.
Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium is a broad spectrum, post-emergence herbicide used throughout the world for treating wheat and other cereals. It is classified as an imidazolinone herbicide. Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium inhibits the acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) enzyme which is responsible for the synthesis of the branched chain amino acids valine, leucine, and isoleucine. When applied, Iodosulfuron-methyl-sodium halts weed growth which eventually kills the weed or causes the weed to die due to its incapability to compete with surrounding vegetation.
Iprodione is a hydantoin fungicide. It is used on crops affected by Botrytis bunch rot, Brown rot, Sclerotinia and other fungal diseases in plants. It is currently applied in a variety of crops: fruit, vegetables, ornamental trees and scrubs and on lawns. It is a contact fungicide that inhibits the germination of fungal spores and it blocks the growth of the fungal mycelium.
Isoxaben is an herbicide from the benzamide family intended for use in vineyards and tree nut orchards for the preemergence control of broadleaf weeds
Isoxaflutole is an isoxazole herbicide that is approved for use on field corn. It demonstrates developmental toxicity and has been classified as a Group B2 carcinogen (probable human carcinogen).
Lactofen is a complex ester of acifluorfen and is a nitrophenyl ether selective herbicide. It is used in postemergence applications to certain crops which are resistant to its action. The name 'Lactofen' is approved by the American National Standards Institute and the Weed Science Society of America, and is also approved in China (乳氟禾草灵).
Malathion is an organophosphate parasympathomimetic which binds irreversibly to cholinesterase. Malathion is an insecticide of relatively low human toxicity.
Maleic hydrazide (MH) was introduced into agriculture in the 1950s as a major commercial herbicide and a depressant of plant growth. It is a plant growth regulator (sprout inhibitor) and herbicide, that acts by inhibiting cell division in plants. It is used to control sprouting of potatoes and onions, suckers in tobacco, and growth of weeds, grasses and trees in/along lawns, turf, ornamental plants, non-bearing citrus, utility and highway rights-of-way, airports and industrial land. Most of the maleic hydrazide used in the U.S. is applied to tobacco (86-88%), followed by potatoes (10%), It is used to control sucker growth on tobacco plants, retardation of flowering and prolongation of dormancy period.
Mancozeb is registered as a general use fungicide that is a member of the chemical class known as ethylene bisdithiocarbamates (EBDCs). The EBDCs are fungicides used to prevent crop damage in the field and to protect harvested crops from deterioration in storage or transport. Mancozeb is used to protect many fruit, vegetable, nut and field crops against a wide spectrum of diseases, including potato blight, leaf spot, scab (on apples and pears) and rust (on roses). It is also used for seed treatment of cotton, potatoes, corn, safflower, sorghum, peanuts, tomatoes, flax and cereal grains
Monobutyl phthalate (MBP), is an active metabolite of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP). Dibutyl phthalate (DBP) is a commonly used plasticizer. It is also used as an additive to adhesives or printing inks. It is soluble in various organic solvents, e.g. in alcohol, ether and benzene. DBP is also used as an ectoparasiticide.. DBP was added to the California Proposition 65 (1986) list of suspected teratogens in November 2006. It is a suspected endocrine disruptor. It was used in some nail polishes; all major producers began eliminating this chemical from nail polishes in the Fall of 2006. DBP was permanently banned in children's toys, Monobutyl phthalate inhibits steroidogenesis by downregulating steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression.
Mepiquat chloride is a plant growth regulator used exclusively on cotton. It is intended to increase yield by inhibiting gibberellic acid synthesis. Mepiquat chloride was first registered as a pesticide in the U.S. in 1980. In studies using laboratory animals, mepiquat chloride generally has been shown to be of low acute toxicity. Testing has also indicated that mepiquat chloride is of low chronic toxicity and that it is negative for mutagenic effects.
Metsulfuron-methyl is a residual sulfonylurea herbicide that kills broadleaf weeds and some annual grasses. It is a systemic compound with foliar and soil activity, that inhibits cell division in shoots and roots. It has very low toxicity to mammals, birds, fish, and insects, but is a moderate eye irritant.
Metam-sodium hydrate (or Metam-sodium) is an organosulfur compound (formally a dithiocarbamate), which is used as a soil fumigant, pesticide, herbicide, and fungicide. It is one of the most widely used pesticides in the United States, with approximately 60 million pounds used in 2001. Upon exposure to the environment, metam sodium decomposes to form methyl isothiocyanate.
Methamidophos is a highly active, systemic, residual organophosphate insecticide/acaricide/avicide with contact and stomach action. Its mode of action in insects and mammals is through inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme is essential in the normal transmission of nerve impulses. Methamidophos is a potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is particularly effective against chewing and sucking insects and is used to control aphids, flea beetles, worms, whiteflies, thrips, cabbage loopers, Colorado potato beetles, potato tubeworms, armyworms, mites, leafhoppers, and many others. Crop uses include broccoli, Brussel sprouts, cauliflower, grapes, celery, sugar beets, cotton, tobacco, and potatoes. It is used abroad for many vegetables, hops, corn, peaches, and other crops Due to its toxicity, the use of pesticides that contain methamidophos is currently being phased out in Brazil. Methamidophos is highly toxic via oral, dermal and inhalation routes of exposure. Methamidophos was found in dumplings (gyoza) manufactured in China for the Japanese market after a number of consumers became sick.
Methidathion is an organophosphate insecticide; its use is banned in the European Community.
Methoxyfenozide ia a diacylhydrazine insecticide that binds with very high affinity to the ecdysone receptor complex where it functions as a potent agonist, or mimic, of the insect molting hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). Methoxyfenozide exhibits high insecticidal efficacy against a wide range of important caterpillar pests, including many species of lepidopteran insects.including navel orangeworm, peach twig borer, leafrollers, loopers, armyworms and citrus leafminers.
Methyl cellosolve, is a clear and colorless liquid at room temperature mainly used as a solvent. It is used for many purposes including varnishes, dyes, resins, printing, finishing textile, and semiconductor manufacturing. It is a central nervous system toxicant and has been shown to damage the lungs and kidneys in animal testing.
Metribuzin (4-amino-6-tert-butyl-3-(methylthio)-as-triazin-5 (4H)-one) is a herbicide used both pre- and post-emergence in crops including soy bean, potatoes, tomatoes and sugar cane. It acts by inhibiting photosynthesis by disrupting photosystem II. It is widely used in agriculture and has been found to contaminate groundwater.
Metsulfuron-methyl is a residual sulfonylurea herbicide that kills broadleaf weeds and some annual grasses. It is a systemic compound with foliar and soil activity, that inhibits cell division in shoots and roots. It has residual activity in soils, allowing it to be used infrequently but requiring up to 22 months before planting certain crops (sunflowers, flax, corn, or safflower). It has very low toxicity to mammals, birds, fish, and insects, but is a moderate eye irritant.
Mevinphos is an organophosphate insecticide that acts as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to control insects in a wide range of crops. It is most commonly used for the control of chewing and sucking insects, as well as spider mites.
N-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide (MGK 264) is an ingredient in some common pesticides. It has no intrinsic pesticidal activity itself, but rather is a synergist enhancing the potency of pyrethroid ingredients. It is used in a variety of household and veterinary products
Monomethyl phthalate is a metabolite, or breakdown product, of dimethyl phthalate, used in insect repellant, plastic, and as a rocket propellant.
Milbemectin is a mixture of milbemycin A3 and milbemycin A4 in a ratio of 3:7. It is an active acaricide produced from fermentation products of Streptomyces subspecies. It is highly active on various phytophagous mites that live on tea plants, pome fruits, stone fruits, citrus, watermelon, strawberry and egg plants. It is also an insecticide that is active against aphids, cutworms, leafrollers and thrips. It appears to stimulate the release of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) which affects the chloride channels of the central nervous system.
Monocrotophos is an organophosphorus insecticide and acaricide which works systemically and on contact. It is extremely toxic to birds and is used as a bird poison. It is also very poisonous to mammals. It is used to control a variety of sucking, chewing and boring insects and spider mites on cotton, sugarcane, peanuts, ornamentals, and tobacco. The EPA classifies monocrotophos as a class I toxicity - highly toxic. Use of monocrotophos on potatoes and tomatoes was withdrawn in 1985. All applications of monocrotophos were discontinued in the United States in 1988.
Myclobutanil is a triazole chemical used as a fungicide. It is a steroid demethylation inhibitor, specifically inhibiting ergosterol biosynthesis. Ergosterol is a critical component of fungal cell membranes.
Napropamide is a selective systemic amide herbicide. The compound is used against a number of annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds. Napropamide is applied to fields containing vegetables, fruit trees and bushes, vines, strawberries, sunflowers, tobacco, olives, mint, turf or other crops. The compound is absorbed by the roots and works by inhibiting root development and growth.
Niclosamide is used for the treatment of most tapeworm infections. Helminths (worms) are multicellular organisms that infect very large numbers of humans and cause a broad range of diseases. Over 1 billion people are infected with intestinal nematodes, and many millions are infected with filarial nematodes, flukes, and tapeworms. They are an even greater problem in domestic animals.
Nitrapyrin (trade name N-Serve) is used as an agricultural chemical. It inhibits nitrification in grain and reduced the nitrogen losses from arable land. It was approved in the USA in 1974 and inhibits or kills Nitrosomonas bacteria. Nitrapyrin is currently registered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a nitrification inhibitor to slow and reduce the loss of nitrogen from soil when used together with urea and other ammoniacal (ammonia containing) fertilizers.
Norflurazon is a pyridazinone herbicide used to control grass and broadleaf weeds. Norflurazon inhibits carotenoid synthesis, which causes chlorophyll depletion and inhibition of photosynthesis in plants. Norflurazon has low toxicity if individuals accidentally eat residues, and very low toxicity if it is inhaled or gets on skin.
Oxadiazon is used as pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicide. It is mainly used for cotton, rice, soybean and sunflower and acts by inhibiting protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO).
Oxasulfuron is a short residual post-emergence herbicide intended for treating crops such as soybeans.  It is taken up by the roots and shoots and translocated to the meristematic tissue. Treated weeds die 1-3 weeks after application.
Oxyfluorfen is a selective pre and postemergent herbicide used to control certain annual broadleaf and grassy weeds in vegetables, fruit, cotton, es] ornamentals and on non-crop areas. It is a contact herbicide and light is required for it to affect target plants.
Paclobutrazol (PBZ) is a plant growth retardant and triazole fungicide. It is a known antagonist of the plant hormone gibberellin. It acts by inhibiting gibberellin biosynthesis, reducing internodial growth to give stouter stems, increasing root growth, causing early fruitset and increasing seedset in plants such as tomato and pepper. PBZ has also been shown to reduce frost sensitivity in plants.
Penoxsulam, also sold under the brand name Granite, is an acetolactate synthase inhibitor herbicide developed in the mid-2000s. This substance is designed to control existing broadleaf weeds and similar plants in lawns, rice fields and cereal crops.
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), is a man-made fluorosurfactant and global pollutant. PFOS was the key ingredient in Scotchgard, a fabric protector made by 3M, and numerous stain repellents. It was added to Annex B of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in May 2009. PFOS can form from the degradation of precursors in addition to industrial production. The PFOS levels that have been detected in wildlife are considered high enough to affect health parameters, and recently higher serum levels of PFOS were found to be associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease in the general US population, consistent with earlier animal studies. This association was independent of confounders such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, and serum cholesterol level.
Phenoxyethanol is chemical preservative, a glycol ether often used in dermatological products such as skin creams and sunscreen. It is a colorless oily liquid. It is a bactericide (usually used in conjunction with quaternary ammonium compounds), often used in place of sodium azide in biological buffers because phenoxyethanol is less toxic and non-reactive with copper and lead. It is used in many applications such as cosmetics, vaccines and pharmaceuticals as a preservative. It is also used as a fixative for perfumes, an insect repellent, a topical antiseptic, a solvent for cellulose acetate, some dyes, inks, and resins, in preservatives, pharmaceuticals, and in organic synthesis. The Food and Drug Administration has warned that the chemical is toxic to infants via ingestion, and can depress the central nervous system and may cause vomiting and diarrhea. Combined with Chlorphenesin, these two chemicals can cause respiratory depression in infants. Since these chemicals are often present in cosmetics and lotions applied to the hands and are easily ingested, caution should be exercised. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) data sheets show chromosomal changes and genetic mutation effects in testing as well as testicular atrophy and interference with reproductivity in mice.
Phosalone is an organophosphate chemical commonly used as an insecticide and acaricide. It is developed by Rhône-Poulenc in France but EU eliminated it from pesticide registration on December 2006.
Primisulfuron-methyl is a urea herbicide that is used on crop and non- crop areas for the control of grass weeds and many kinds of broad-leaved weeds. The compound is a selective postemergence systemic herbicide that is rapidly absorbed by plants and transported throughout the plant roots and foliage. The herbicide works by blocking cell growth in the active growing regions of the plant. The herbicide also acts to inhibit photosynthesis
Prochloraz is an imidazole fungicide that is widely used in Europe, Australia, Asia and South America for gardening and agriculture. It can be used alone or in combination with other agents in case of fungal infestation of cereals. It is frequently used in the seed dressing to prevent fungal diseases of many crops, including oilseed rape, sugar beet, vegetables, rice and coffee, as well as for the protection of citrus fruits during storage and transport. Screening studies have shown that prochloraz elicits multiple mechanisms of action in vitro, as it antagonizes the androgen and the oestrogen receptor, agonizes the Ah receptor and inhibits aromatase activity. In vivo prochloraz acts as an antiandrogen
Prohexadione-calcium is a plant growth regulator that inhibits gibberellin metabolism. It is frequently used as a growth-retardant compound for apples. Prohexidione-calcium is known to reduce terminal growth by inhibiting 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, which are involved in the formation of growth-specific gibberellins (e.g., the conversion of GA20 to GA1), a group of plant hormones that are primarily responsible for regulation of shoot elongation in apple trees. In addition, it is also known that prohexadione-calcium interferes with ethylene biosynthesis and flavonoid metabolism, which can influence other responses in the plant.
Prometon is a herbicide used for killing annual and perennial broad-leaf weeds to aid in brush and grass control mainly in non-cropping situations. It is a nonselective herbicide which can be applied before or following weed emergence.  It controls most annual and many perennial broadleaf weeds and grasses, such as Johsongrass, Bermudagrass, foxtail, mustards, ragweeed, plantain, quackgrass, horsetail, watergrass, chickweed, catchfly, cocklebur, mullein, crabgrass, dock, goosegrass, etc.
Prometryn is a selective herbicide which controls annual grasses and broadleaf weeds in a variety of crops including cotton and celery. It inhibits photosynthesis in susceptible species. Prometryn is available in wettable powder and liquid formulations. Prometryn is a slightly to moderately toxic compound which is classified as a member of toxicity class II or III, depending on the formulation.
Propargite (IUPAC name 2-(4-tert-butylphenoxy)cyclohexyl prop-2-yne-1-sulfonate, trade names Omite and Comite) is a pesticide used to kill mites (an acaricide). Symptoms of exposure and poisoning to it are eye and skin irritation, as well as sensitization. It is highly toxic to amphibians, fish, and zooplankton, as well as having potential carcinogenity.
Propazine is an herbicide used for control of broadleaf weeds and annual grasses in sweet sorghum. It is applied as a spray at the time of planting or immediately following planting, but prior to weed or sorghum emergence. It is also used as a postemergence selective herbicide on carrots, celery and fennel. Propazine is classified as a slightly toxic compound in EPA toxicity class III and as a General Use Pesticide.
Propetamphos is an organophosphate, household and public health insecticide designed to control cockroaches, flies, ants, ticks, moths, fleas and mosquitoes on contact. Propetamphos works internally in the insect where it promotes stomach activity. Its veterinary use is for skin parasites such as cattle ticks and skin lice. Propetamphos is a General Use Pesticide. Propetamphos is a moderately toxic compound. Typical of other organophosphates, it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Acetylcholinesterase, is found at the ends of nerve junctions, in the brain and in the blood stream.
Propiconazole is a triazole fungicide, also known as a DMI, or demethylation inhibiting fungicide due to its binding with and inhibiting the 14-alpha demethylase enzyme from demethylating a precursor to ergosterol. Without this demethylation step, the ergosterols are not incorporated into the growing fungal cell membranes, and cellular growth is stopped. Propiconazole is used agriculturally on turfgrasses grown for seed and aesthetic or athletic value, mushrooms, corn, wild rice, peanuts, almonds, sorghum, oats, pecans, apricots, peaches, nectarines, plums and prunes. It is also used in combination with permethrin in formulations of wood preserver. Propiconazole is a mixture of four stereoisomers and was first developed in 1979 by Janssen Pharmaceutica.
Propoxycarbazone-sodium is a postemergence herbicide used primarily to control various annual and perennial grasses in rye, triticale, and wheat. Its efficacy is the result of the inhibition of the enzyme acetolactate synthase (ALS) in target plants.
Prosulfuron is a sulfonylurea herbicide that controls certain annual broadleaved weeds including velvetleaf, common cocklebur, common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed and ragweed. Sulfonylurea herbicides inhibit the production of branched-chain amino acids, including valine, leucine, and isoleucine. Without these amino acids, protein synthesis is not possible, and susceptible plants cease growth and die. Sulfonylurea herbicides are applied at low doses and have high level of herbicide activity [3]. Sulfonylurea herbicides are absorbed quickly by the shoots or roots of susceptible plants and are translocated throughout the plant.
Pymetrozine is a neuroactive insecticide that selectively affects chordotonal mechanoreceptors. Physiologically, it appears to act by preventing these insects from inserting their stylus into the plant tissue. It controls many strains of aphids on potatoes and in a range of vegetable brassica crops. Pymetrozine has been determined to be of low acute toxicity to humans, birds, aquatic organisms, mammals, and bees.
Pyraclostrobin is a broad spectrum foliar fungicide belonging to the strobilurin chemical class. It acts by inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. This leads to a reduction of the available ATP quantity in the fungal cell. It is used for control or suppression of fungal diseases on many common crops including: Berries, Bulb, Cucurbit, Fruiting, and Root vegetables, and Cherries
Pyridaben is an insecticide and acaricide that is effective against thrips, mites, aphids and leafhoppers. It can be used to treat insect infestations in citrus and other fruit orchards. It was discovered and introduced by Nissan Chemical Industries, Ltd and first marketed in Belgium in 1990. It has a low aqueous solubility, not considered particulatly volatile and, based on its chemical properties, is not expected to leach to groundwater. It is moderately toxic to mammals and not expected to bioaccumulate. It is highly toxic to most aquatic organisms and honey bees but less so to earthworms and birds. (L2092)
Pyriproxyfen is a pyridine-based pesticide which is found to be effective against a variety of arthropoda. It was introduced to the US in 1996, to protect cotton crops against whitefly. It has also been found useful for protecting other crops. It is also used as a prevention for fleas on household pets.
Pyrithiobac-sodium is a post-emergence herbicide for the control of broad-leaved weeds in cotton and other crops. It has a high aqueous solubility, is non-volatile and, based on its chemical properties, it is very mobile and has high potential to leach to groundwater. It is generally moderately persistent in soil systems but tends to be non-persistent in aquatic systems. It has a low mammalian toxicity but may bioaccumulate.
Quinclorac is a selective herbicide used primarily to control weeds in rice crops, but is also used on other agricultural crops and is found in some household herbicides for lawn use.
Quizalofop-ethyl is a selective, postemergence phenoxy herbicide. It is used to control annual and perennial grass weeds in potatoes, soybeans, sugar beets, peanuts vegetables, cotton and flax. The compound is absorbed from the leaf surface and is moved throughout the plant. It accumulates in the active growing regions of stems and roots.
Bioallethrin is a brand name for an ectoparasiticide. It consists of two of the eight stereosiomers of allethrin I in an approximate ratio of 1:1. Esbioallethrin or S-bioallethrin s the pure S-form of the pesticide. Bioallethrin  is subject to extensive hydrolytic and oxidative degeneration by the mammalian metabolism, leading to a complex series of metabolites partially conjugated and finally eliminated in the urine.
Sethoxydim is a selective postemergence herbicide used to control annual and perennial grass weeds in broad-leaved vegetable, fruit, field and ornamental crops. It also has indoor uses. Sethoxydim is moderately toxic by ingestion, and not toxic by dermal absorption. It causes skin and eye irritation. Inhalation of dusts or vapors can cause irritation of the throat and nose.
Simazine is a herbicide of the triazine class. The compound is used to control broad-leaved weeds and annual grasses.
Spiroxamine is a spiroketalamines fungicide. It is used for the control of fungal diseases in cereals and vines. Its mechanism of action is based on the disruption of the biosynthesis of sterols in fungi.
Sulfentrazone is a chemical used as a herbicide. It is the active ingredient in Dismiss as well as Solitare herbicides. It is effective for controlling sedges in turfgrass.
Tebufenozide is an insecticide that acts as a molting hormone. It is an agonist of ecdysone that causes premature molting in larvae. It is primarily used against caterpillar pests.
Tebufenpyrad is a pyrazole acaricide and insecticide commonly used in commercial greenhouses. The compound exists as a white crystalline solid and is dissolved in water before application. It is found to be very toxic to fish, though is practically non-toxic to birds.
Tebupirimfos, also known as phostebupirim, is an organothiophosphate insecticide. It is used on corn crops, including popcorn.
Tebuthiuron is a nonselective broad spectrum herbicide of the urea class. It is used in a number of herbicides manufactured by Dow AgroSciences, and is sold under several trade names, depending on the formulation. It is used to control weeds, woody and herbaceous plants, and sugar cane. It is absorbed by the roots and transported to the leaves, where it inhibits photosynthesis.
Tepraloxydim is a post-emergence herbicide for control of annual grass weeds
Tetraconazole is a liquid fungicide for control of Cercospora leafspot and powdery mildew on sugar beets.
Thiabendazole is a fungicide and parasiticide. It is used primarily to control mold, blight, and other fungally caused diseases in fruits (e.g. oranges) and vegetables; it is also used as a prophylactic treatment for Dutch elm disease. As an antiparasitic, it is able to control roundworms (such as those causing strongyloidiasis), hookworms, and other helminth species which attack wild animals, livestock and humans.
Thiazopyr is a herbicide used in the pre-emergent control of broadleaf weeds (chickweed, Lambsquarters, pigweed, etc.) and annual grasses (crabgrass, foxtail, itchgrass, etc.). It is commonly used in citrus (orange and grapefruit) orchards as well as sugar cane and pineapple farms. It is slightly toxic by acute oral and inhalation exposure and practically nontoxic by acute dermal exposure. It is considered to be moderately irritating to the skin and substantially irritating to the eye. There was no evidence of carcinogenic effects in an 18-month chronic/oncogenicity study in mice at dose levels up to and including 800 ppm (216 mg/kg/day).
Thiophanate-Methyl (TM) is a systemic fungicide. It was first registered to be used as a fungicide by the EPA in 1973. It is effective against a wide range of fungal pathogens including: eyespot and other diseases of cereals; scab on apples and pears; Monilia disease and Gloeosporim rot on apples; Monilia app. On stone fruit; Canker on fruit trees; powdery mildews on pome fruit, stone fruit, vegetables, cucurbits, strawberries, vines, roses. Thiophanate methyl is also used on almonds, pecans, tea, coffee, peanuts, soya beans, tobacco, chestnuts, sugar cane, citrus fruit, figs, hops, mulberries, and many other crops.
Tralkoxydim is a cyclohexanedione herbicide that is applied to actively growing weeds in wheat and barley to control wild oats, green foxtail, yellow foxtail, annual ryegrass (Italian) and persian darnel.
Triasulfuron is a selective sulfonylurea herbicide, which is absorbed by the leaves and the roots and is distributed through the plant to the meristems. It inhibits the biosynthesis of essential branched-chain amino acids valine and isoleucine, which prevents cell division and the plant growth is stopped. It is used as a herbicide in the cultivation of cereals (wheat, barley and triticale ) and can be applied before or after the emergence of the weeds.
Tribenuron-methyl is the methyl ester of the sulfonylurea herbicide tribenuron and also the form in which tribenuron is used in pesticides. It is used in the cultivation of cereals to combat broadleaf weeds. Similar to other sulfonylureas, the site of action of Tribenuron-methyl is acetolactate synthase (ALS), an enzyme involved in branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis. Sulfonylurea herbicides were discovered by DuPont in 1975 and marketed for the first time in 1982.
Trichlorfon is an organophosphate insecticide used to control cockroaches, crickets, silverfish, bedbugs, fleas, cattle grubs, flies, ticks, leafminers and leaf-hoppers. It is applied to vegetable, fruit and field crops; livestock; ornamental and forestry plantings; in agricultural premises and domestic settings; in greenhouses, and for control of parasites of fish in designated aquatic environments. It is also used for treating domestic animals for control of internal parasites. Trichlorfon is a selective insecticide, meaning that it kills selected insects, but spares many or most other organisms. Trichlorfon is toxic to target insects through direct applications and by ingestion. In other words, it works both by contact and stomach poison action. Trichlorfon acts by interfering with an essential nervous system enzyme, cholinesterase.
Triclosan is an antibacterial and antifungal agent. It is a polychloro phenoxy phenol. Though many consumer products contain triclosan, according to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) at the present time there is no evidence that triclosan in personal care products provides an extra benefit to health beyond its anti-gingivitis effect in toothpaste. The FDA does not recommend changing consumer use of triclosan containing products one way or the other due to currently insufficient safety evidence. Studies by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) found triclosan to be an effective antibacterial. Triclosan safety is currently under review by the FDA and Health Canada.
Trifloxysulfuron-sodium is a sulfonylurea class herbicide that functions as an ALS inhibitor. It is a systemic herbicide that moves throughout the plant tissue and prevents plants from producing an essential enzyme, acetolactate synthase (ALS or AHAS), which is not found in animals. This enzyme is key for the biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids. Susceptible plants will stop growing soon after treatment, but plant death and decomposition will occur over several weeks. It is used for the control of broadleaf weeds found on lawns and turf such as clover, dandelions and carpetweed,
Triflusulfuron-methyl is a selective postemergence sulfonylurea herbicide for the control of annual and perennial broadleaf weeds and grasses in sugar beets (Beta vulgaris). Similar to other sulfonylureas, the site of action of triflusulfuron methyl is acetolactate synthase (ALS), an enzyme involved in branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis.
Vinclozolin (trade names: Ronilan, Curalan, Vorlan, Touche) is a common dicarboximide fungicide used to control diseases, such as blights, rots and molds in vineyards, and on fruits and vegetables such as raspberries, lettuce, kiwi, snap beans, and onions. It is also used on turf on golf courses. Two common fungi that vinclozolin is used to protect crops against are botrytis cinerea and sclerotinia scleotiorun. First registered in 1981, vinclozolin is widely used but its overall application has declined. As a pesticide, vinclozolin is regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). It has gone through a series of tests and regulations in order to evaluate the risks and hazards to the environment and animals. Among the research, a main finding is that vinclozolin has been shown to be an endocrine disruptor with antiandrogenic effects.
An antagonists for  androgen receptor (AR).  It is also a weak inhibitors on expression under control of the progesterone receptor (PR) and an estrogen-related receptor (ERR)gamma inverse agonists.
2-Isopropylphenol is a flavouring ingredient

2-isopropylphenol belongs to the family of Cumenes. These are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety.
alpha-(p-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)phenyl)-omega-hydroxypoly(oxyethylene) is used as a food additive [EAFUS] (EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]).

alpha-(p-(1,1,3,3-Tetramethylbutyl)phenyl)-omega-hydroxypoly(oxyethylene) belongs to the family of p-Menthane Monoterpenes. These are monoterpenes whose structure is based on the p-menthane backbone.
3,4-dichlorophenol is estrogen receptor(ER)alpha agonists, antagonists for androgen recepto(AR). It is a weak inhibitors on expression under control of the progesterone receptor(PR), also exhibits the ability to reverse the estrogen-related receptor (ERR) inhibition induced by 4-hydroxytamoxifen.
Tetrachlorobisphenol A is estrogen receptor(ER) alpha agonists, antagonists for androgen receptor(AR), progesterone receptor(PR) antagonists. It exhibits the ability to reverse the ERR inhibition induced by 4-hydroxytamoxifen.
4-phenylphenol is estrogen recepto(ER) alpha agonists, antagonists for androgen receptor (AR). It is a weak inhibitors on expression under control of the progesterone receptor(PR).
A synthetic tetracycline derivative with similar antimicrobial activity. Animal studies suggest that it may cause less tooth staining than other tetracyclines. It is used in some areas for the treatment of chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria (malaria, falciparum). [PubChem]
A tetracycline analog having a 7-chloro and a 6-methyl. Because it is excreted more slowly than tetracycline, it maintains effective blood levels for longer periods of time. [PubChem]
Lymecycline is a tetracycline broad-spectrum antibiotic marketed by the pharmaceutical company Galderma. It is approximately 5,000 times more soluble than tetracycline base and is unique amongst tetracyclines in that it is absorbed by an active transport process across the intestinal wall, making use of the same fast and efficient mechanism by which carbohydrates are absorbed.
A tetracycline analog isolated from the actinomycete streptomyces rimosus and used in a wide variety of clinical conditions. [PubChem]
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of <i>Streptomyces venequelae</i> in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Tetracycline is a broad spectrum polyketide antibiotic produced by the Streptomyces genus of Actinobacteria. It exerts a bacteriostatic effect on bacteria by binding reversible to the bacterial 30S ribosomal subunit and blocking incoming aminoacyl tRNA from binding to the ribosome acceptor site. It also binds to some extent to the bacterial 50S ribosomal subunit and may alter the cytoplasmic membrane causing intracellular components to leak from bacterial cells.
Quantitatively, the most important metabolite of nicotine in most mammalian species is cotinine. In humans, about 70 to 80% of nicotine is converted to cotinine. This transformation involves two steps. The first is mediated by a cytochrome P450 system (mainly CYP2A6 and CYP2B6) to produce nicotine iminium ion. The second step is catalyzed by aldehyde oxidase (AOX). A number of cotinine metabolites have also been structurally characterized. Indeed, it appears that most of the reported urinary metabolites of nicotine are derived from cotinine.
Diethylthiophosphate is the most frequent metabolite of organophosphorus (OP) found in urine  Organophosphorus compounds are widely used as pesticides because of easy degradation in the environment. Acute OP intoxication results from blockage of the decomposition of synaptic acetylcholine because the pesticide covalently binds to chlolinesterase  Chronic exposure to POs has neurological sequelae as well  and data suggests that OP exposure alters sperm chromatin condensation  (A3181, A3182, A3183, A3181).
Monoisobutyl phthalic acid is a phthalate metabolite that has been found in human meconium and in semen , saliva , and urine  Phthalate esters are a family of multifunctional compounds widely used as plasticizers, solvents, or additives in many diverse products such as poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) materials, pharmaceuticals and medical devices, pesticides, lubricants, and personal care products. Humans have been exposed to phthalates through the manufacture, ubiquitous use, and disposal of PVC materials and other phthalate-containing products.  (A3185, A3186, A3187, A3185).
Monoethyl phthalate (mEtP) is a metabolite, or breakdown product, of diethyl phthalate, used in perfume, cologne, deodorant, soap, shampoo, lotion, and other personal care products, particularly those containing fragrance.
Equol is a metabolite of daidzein, a phytoestrogen common in the human diet and abundant in soy. Intestinal bacteria in humans can reduce daidzein to equol, and can be found in normal human urine. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones.  (A3188, A3189).
Daidzein is one of several known isoflavones. Isoflavones compounds are found in a number of plants, but soybeans and soy products like tofu and textured vegetable protein are the primary food source. Up until recently, daidzein was considered to be one of the most important and most studied isoflavones, however more recently attention has shifted to isoflavone metabolites. Equol represents the main active product of daidzein metabolism, produced via specific microflora in the gut. The clinical effectiveness of soy isoflavones may be a function of the ability to biotransform soy isoflavones to the more potent estrogenic metabolite, equol, which may enhance the actions of soy isoflavones, owing to its greater affinity for estrogen receptors, unique antiandrogenic properties, and superior antioxidant activity. However, not all individuals consuming daidzein produce equol. Only approximately one-third to one-half of the population is able to metabolize daidzein to equol. This high variability in equol production is presumably attributable to interindividual differences in the composition of the intestinal microflora, which may play an important role in the mechanisms of action of isoflavones. But, the specific bacterial species in the colon involved in the production of equol are yet to be discovered.  (A3191, A3189).
O-Desmethylangolensin (ODMA) is a metabolite of the soy isoflavone daidzein by intestinal bacteria in approximately 80-90% of persons. Studies suggest beneficial health effects associated with daidzein-metabolizing phenotypes, and there is some small association between ODMA production and some phenotypes. Few dietary factors are associated with daidzein-metabolizing phenotypes. However, it remains unclear why some, but not all, persons harbor ODMA-producing bacteria. ODMA production is inversely associated with age, height, weight, and body mass index. In addition, Asians are less likely than whites to be ODMA producers, and former smokers were more likely than never smokers to be ODMA producers. Investigators have attempted to identify the bacteria involved in ODMA production, and several candidate bacteria were associated, but not definitely identified. ODMA production is correlated with the abundance of methanogens, indicating that the metabolic fate of daidzein may be related to intestinal H(2) metabolism.  (A3192, A3193).
Enterolactone is a mammalian lignan that have a similar biphenolic structure to lignans from plants. Lignans are compounds with estrogenic properties and are probably the most important source of phytoestrogens in western diets. Mammalian lignans are formed from precursors that are contained mainly in vegetables, whole grain products and berries, via action of intestinal microflora. Enterolactone is produced in the colon by the action of bacteria on secoisolariciresinol, matairesinol and its glycosides. Secoisolariciresinol is converted to enterodiol which is subsequently converted to enterolactone as it passes through the colon. Matairesinol is converted directly to enterolactone. Enterolactone have been shown to possess weakly estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities, and it has been suggested that the high production of this antiestrogenic mammalian lignans in the gut may serve to protect against breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men; however epidemiological evidence to date is conflicting.  (A3195, A3194, A3196, A3197).
1-naphthol (1N) is a metabolite of carbaryl and naphthalene that is an intermediate in Metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450. It is generated by spontaneous reaction from (1R,2S)-Naphthalene epoxide then is it converted to 1,4-Dihydroxynaphthalene. Although 1-Naphthol is not persistent in the body, a single urine sample may adequately predict exposure over several months to chlorpyrifos, which is a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide. In adult men, TCPY and 1N were associated with reduced testosterone levels  (A3198, A3199).
Diethylphosphate is product of metabolism and of environmental degradation of Chlorpyrifos (CPF; a commonly used diethylphosphorothionate organophosphorus (OP) insecticide) and are routinely measured in urine as biomarkers of exposure.  (A3200).
2-Naphthol is a colorless crystalline solid and an isomer of 1-naphthol, differing by the location of the hydroxyl group on naphthalene. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of phenol, with the hydroxyl group being more reactive than in the phenols. 2-Naphthol has several different uses including dyes, pigments, fats, oils, insecticides, pharmaceuticals, perfumes, antiseptics, synthesis of fungicides, and antioxidants for rubber. Detection of 2-Naphthol in urine usually results from long-term persistent exposure to pesticides such as chlorpyrifos, but also due to exposure to naphthalene in older types of mothballs, fires that produce polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and tobacco smoke.
1-Hydroxypyrene is a metabolite of the noncarcinogen pyrene found in urine that is always a component of PAH mixtures. 1-hydroxypyrene is an accepted biomarker of carcinogenic Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) dose PAH are a diverse group of environmental carcinogens formed during the incomplete combustion of organic matter. PAHs are believed to play an important role as causes of human cancer, particularly in certain occupational settings and in cigarette smokers.  (A3201, A3202).
Monoethylhexyl phthalic acid (MEHP) is an active metabolite of Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). DEHP measured from the blood of pregnant women have been significantly associated with the decreased penis width, shorter anogenital distance, and the incomplete descent of testes of their newborn sons, replicating effects identified in animals. DEHP hydrolyzes to MEHP via the enzyme Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate acylhydrolase(3.1.1.60)and subsequently to phthalate salts. The released alcohol is susceptible to oxidation to the aldehyde and carboxylic acid.
Cesium (Caesium) is a soft, silvery-gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28&#176;C (82&#176;F). Cesium is used in various industries, from the oil industry as cesium formate in drilling fluid, atomic clocks, centrifugation fluids, and cesium vapor thermionic generators, which convert heat energy to electrical energy.
Thallium is a chemical element with symbol Tl and atomic number 81. This soft gray post-transition metal is not found free in nature. When isolated, it resembles tin, but discolors when exposed to air. Thallium tends to oxidize to the +3 and +1 oxidation states as ionic salts. The +3 state resembles that of the other elements in thallium's group (boron, aluminum, gallium, indium). However, the +1 state, which is far more prominent in thallium than the elements above it, recalls the chemistry of alkali metals, and thallium(I) ions are found geologically mostly in potassium-based ores, and (when ingested) are handled in many ways like potassium ions (K+) by ion pumps in living cells. Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, and should be handled with great care. There are numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning. Contact with skin is dangerous, and adequate ventilation should be provided when melting this metal.
Benzophenone is found in fruits. Benzophenone is present in grapes. Benzophenone is a flavouring agent Benzophenone is a common photosensitizer in photochemistry. It crosses from the S1 state into the triplet state with nearly 100% yield. The resulting diradical will abstract a hydrogen atom from a suitable hydrogen donor to form a ketyl radical. Benzophenone is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2CO, generally abbreviated Ph2CO. Benzophenone is a widely used building block in organic chemistry, being the parent diarylketone.

Benzophenone has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory function 

Benzophenone belongs to the family of Benzophenones. These are organic compounds containing a ketone attached to two phenyl groups. (A3203).
Methylparaben is found in alcoholic beverages. Methylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent. Methylparaben is a constituent  of cloudberry, yellow passion fruit, white wine, botrytised wine and Bourbon vanilla. Methylparaben has been shown to exhibit anti-microbial function  Methylparaben belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. (A3204).
Ethylparaben is found in alcoholic beverages. Ethylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative. Ethylparaben is present in red wine, white wine and sake. Ethylparaben belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid.
Propylparaben is an antimicrobial agent, preservative, flavouring agent. Propylparaben belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid.
Butylparaben is a preservative and flavouring agent. Butylparaben has been shown to exhibit anti-microbial function  Butylparaben belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid. (A3205).
2-Biphenylol is found in lemon. It is an antifungal agent and preservative. 2-Biphenylol is used for post-harvest control of storage disease in apples, citrus fruit, stone fruit, tomatoes, cucumber and peppers through the use of impregnated wrapping materials or by direct application in a wax. 2-Biphenylol is used in food seasonings. Inhibitory to a wider range of moulds than Biphenyl <ht>HMJ12-A</ht>. The practical way of treatment is to immerse citrus fruit in an alkaline aqueous solution of the parent compound or its Na salt. 2-Biphenylol belongs to the family of Biphenyls and Derivatives. These are organic compounds containing to benzene rings linked together by a C-C bond.
2,5-Dimethylfuran is a maillard product 2,5-Dimethylfuran has been identified as one of the components of cigar smoke with low cilatoxicity (ability to adversely affect the cilia in the respiratory tract that are responsible for removing foreign particles). Its blood concentration can be used as a biomarker for smoking. 2,5-Dimethylfuran, together with 2,5-hexanedione and 4,5-dihydroxy-2-hexanone, is one of the main metabolites of hexane in humans, which play a role in the mechanism for the neurotoxicity of hexane. A derivative of furan, 2,5-dimethylfuran is a heterocyclic compound of the formula C6H8O. While it may be abbreviated DMF, it should not be confused with dimethylformamide. Recent advances have increased its attractiveness as a biofuel.
4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol belongs to the family of Pyridines and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a pyridine ring, which is a six-member aromatic heterocycle which consists of one nitrogen atom and five carbon atoms.
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), also known as C8 and perfluorooctanoate, is a synthetic, stable perfluorinated carboxylic acid and fluorosurfactant. One industrial application is as a surfactant in the emulsion polymerization of fluoropolymers. It has been used in the manufacture of such prominent consumer goods as Teflon and Gore-Tex. PFOA has been manufactured since the 1940s in industrial quantities. It is also formed by the degradation of precursors such as some fluorotelomers. PFOA persists indefinitely in the environment. It is a toxicant and carcinogen in animals. PFOA has been detected in the blood of more than 98% of the general US population in the low and sub-parts per billion range, and levels are higher in chemical plant employees and surrounding subpopulations. Exposure has been associated with increased cholesterol and uric acid levels, and recently higher serum levels of PFOA were found to be associated with increased risk of chronic kidney disease in the general United States population, consistent with earlier animal studies. This association was independent of confounders such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, body mass index, diabetes, hypertension, and serum cholesterol level. .
This compound belongs to the family of Fluorenes. These are compounds containing a fluorene moiety, which consists of two benzene rings connected through either a cyclopentane, cyclopentene, or cyclopenta-1,3-diene.
This compound belongs to the family of Fluorenes. These are compounds containing a fluorene moiety, which consists of two benzene rings connected through either a cyclopentane, cyclopentene, or cyclopenta-1,3-diene.
Uranium is a silvery-white metallic chemical element in the actinide series of the periodic table, with symbol U and atomic number 92. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable (with half-lives of the 6 naturally known isotopes, U-233 - U-238, varying between 69 years and 4л_ billion years). The most common isotopes of uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for almost 99.3% of the uranium found in nature) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons, accounting for 0.7% of the element found naturally). Uranium has the second highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements, lighter only than plutonium. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, but not as dense as gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.
Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) is a perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA). PFAAs have been frequently detected in both the environment and in plants fish and animals.  It is a breakdown product of stain- and grease-proof coatings on food packaging, couches, carpets. Like many PFAAs, it is persistent and bioaccumulative. PFAAs are thought to be endocrine disruptors. Many are known toxicants and carcinogens.  PFAAs have been used in the manufacture of such prominent consumer goods as Teflon and Gore-Tex.
Perfluorononanoic acid, or PFNA, is a synthetic perfluorinated carboxylic acid and fluorosurfactant that is also an environmental contaminant found in people and wildlife along with PFOS and PFOA.
Perfluoroundecanoic acid is a perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA). PFAAs have been frequently detected in both the environment and in plants fish and animals.  It is a breakdown product of stain- and grease-proof coatings on food packaging, couches, carpets. Like many PFAAs, it is persistent and bioaccumulative. PFAAs are thought to be endocrine disruptors. Many are known toxicants and carcinogens.  PFAAs have been used in the manufacture of such prominent consumer goods as Teflon and Gore-Tex.
Mono-benzyl phthalate is a phthalate metabolite that can be found in human biofluids. Phthalates are industrial chemicals that are added to plastics to impart flexibility and resilience and are often referred to as plasticizers. Phthalates also are used as solubilizing or stabilizing agents in other applications. There are numerous products that may contain phthalates: adhesives; automotive plastics; detergents; lubricating oils; some medical devices and pharmaceuticals; plastic raincoats; solvents; vinyl tiles and flooring; and personal-care products, such as soap, shampoo, deodorants, lotions, fragrances, hair spray, and nail polish. Phthalates are often used in polyvinyl chloride type plastics, such as plastic packaging film and sheet, garden hoses, inflatable recreational toys, blood product storage bags, intravenous medical tubing, and toys. Because they are not chemically bound to the plastics to which they are added, phthalates can be released into the environment during use or disposal of the product. People are exposed to phthalates through ingestion, inhalation, and, to a lesser extent, dermal contact with products that contain phthalates. Phthalates have low acute animal toxicity. In animals, phthalates produced anti-androgenic effects by reducing testosterone production and, at very high levels, reducing estrogen production, effects that may be mediated by inhibiting testicular and ovarian steroidogenesis.
Protopine is a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid occurring in opium poppies and other plants of the family papaveraceae. It has been found to inhibit histamine H1 receptors and platelet aggregation, and acts as an opioid analgesic.
Vincristine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antitumor alkaloid isolated from Vinca Rosea. (Merck, 11th ed.) The antitumor activity of Vincristine is thought to be due primarily to inhibition of mitosis at metaphase through its interaction with tubulin. Like other vinca alkaloids, Vincristine may also interfere with: 1) amino acid, cyclic AMP, and glutathione metabolism, 2) calmodulin-dependent Ca<sup>2+</sup>-transport ATPase activity, 3) cellular respiration, and 4) nucleic acid and lipid biosynthesis. Vincristine is indicated for the treatment of acute leukaemia, malignant lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease, acute erythraemia, and acute panmyelosis. Vincristine sulfate is often chosen as part of polychemotherapy because of lack of significant bone marrow suppression (at recommended doses) and of unique clinical toxicity (neuropathy).
Vinblastine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antitumor alkaloid isolated from Vinca rosea. (Merck, 11th ed.)The antitumor activity of vinblastine is thought to be due primarily to inhibition of mitosis at metaphase through its interaction with tubulin. Vinblastine binds to the microtubular proteins of the mitotic spindle, leading to crystallization of the microtubule and mitotic arrest or cell death.
Ouabain is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cardioactive glycoside consisting of rhamnose and ouabagenin, obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus and other plants of the Apocynaceae; used like digitalis. It is commonly used in cell biological studies as an inhibitor of the NA(+)-K(+)-exchanging ATPase. Ouabain inhibits the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, resulting in an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations. Increased intracellular concentrations of calcium may promote activation of contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin). Ouabain also acts on the electrical activity of the heart, increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization, shortening the action potential duration, and decreasing the maximal diastolic potential.
A cyclodecane isolated from the bark of the Pacific yew tree, TAXUS brevifolia. It stabilizes microtubules in their polymerized form leading to cell death.  ABI-007 (Abraxane) is the latest attempt to improve upon paclitaxel, one of the leading chemotherapy treatments. Both drugs contain the same active agent, but Abraxane is delivered by a nanoparticle technology that binds to albumin, a natural protein, rather than the toxic solvent known as Cremophor. It is thought that delivering paclitaxel with this technology will cause fewer hypersensitivity reactions and possibly lead to greater drug uptake in tumors. Paclitaxel is a mitotic inhibitor used in cancer chemotherapy. It was discovered in a US National Cancer Institute program at the Research Triangle Institute in 1967 when Monroe E. Wall and Mansukh C. Wani isolated it from the bark of the Pacific yew tree, Taxus brevifolia and named it taxol. Later it was discovered that endophytic fungi in the bark synthesize paclitaxel.
Colchicine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a major alkaloid from Colchicum autumnale L. and found also in other Colchicum species. Its primary therapeutic use is in the treatment of gout, but it has been used also in the therapy of familial Mediterranean fever (periodic disease). The precise mechanism of action has not been completely established. In patients with gout, colchicine apparently interrupts the cycle of monosodium urate crystal deposition in joint tissues and the resultant inflammatory response that initiates and sustains an acute attack. Colchicine decreases leukocyte chemotaxis and phagocytosis and inhibits the formation and release of a chemotactic glycoprotein that is produced during phagocytosis of urate crystals. Colchicine also inhibits urate crystal deposition, which is enhanced by a low pH in the tissues, probably by inhibiting oxidation of glucose and subsequent lactic acid production in leukocytes. Colchicine has no analgesic or antihyperuricemic activity. Colchicine inhibits microtubule assembly in various cells, including leukocytes, probably by binding to and interfering with polymerization of the microtubule subunit tubulin. Although some studies have found that this action probably does not contribute significantly to colchicine's antigout action, a recent in vitro study has shown that it may be at least partially involved.
Digitoxin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a cardiac glycoside sometimes used in place of digoxin. It has a longer half-life than digoxin; toxic effects, which are similar to those of digoxin, are longer lasting. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p665)Digitoxin inhibits the Na-K-ATPase membrane pump, resulting in an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium concentrations. Increased intracellular concentrations of calcium may promote activation of contractile proteins (e.g., actin, myosin). Digitoxin also acts on the electrical activity of the heart, increasing the slope of phase 4 depolarization, shortening the action potential duration, and decreasing the maximal diastolic potential.
Sanguinarine is found in opium poppy. Consumption of Sanguinarine, present in poppy seeds and in the oil of <i>Argemone mexicana</i> which has been used as an adulterant for mustard oil in India, has been linked to development of glaucoma. Sanguinarine is banned by FDA. Sanguinarine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. It is extracted from some plants, including bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), Mexican prickly poppy Argemone mexicana, Chelidonium majus and Macleaya cordata. It is also found in the root, stem and leaves of the opium poppy but not in the capsule. Sanguinarine is a toxin that kills animal cells through its action on the Na+-K+-ATPase transmembrane protein. Epidemic dropsy is a disease that results from ingesting sanguinarine. Sanguinarine has been shown to exhibit antibiotic, anti-apoptotic, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic functions  Sanguinarine belongs to the family of Benzoquinolines. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a quinoline ring system. (A3208, A3209, A3208, A3208, A3208).
Neosaxitoxin is produced by Protogonyaulax and found in shellfish. Neosaxitoxin has been shown to exhibit anesthetic function. Neosaxitoxin belongs to the family of Saxitoxins, Gonyautoxins, and Derivatives. These are compounds whose structure is based on a 2,6-diamino-4-methyl-pyrrolo[1,2-c]purin-10-ol skeleton. (A3210).
Hypoglycin is toxic if ingested and is the causative agent of Jamaican vomiting sickness. It is an amino acid and chemically related to lysine.
Hypoglycin B is a naturally occurring organic compound in the species Blighia sapida. It is particularly concentrated in the fruit of the plant especially in the seeds. Hypoglycin B is toxic if ingested and is a causative agent of Jamaican Vomiting Sickness. It is an amino acid and chemically related to lysine.
(+)-Calycanthine is found in herbs and spices. (+)-Calycanthine is an alkaloid from Calycanthus floridus (Carolina allspice) and other Calycanthus species. (+)-Calycanthine belongs to the family of Naphthyridines. These are compounds containing a naphthyridine moeity, a naphthalene in which a carbon atom has been replaced by a nitrogen in each of the two rings. The naphthyridine skeleton can also be described as an assembly two fused pyridine rings, which do not share their nitrogen atom.
(S)-Isocorydine is found in cherimoya. (S)-Isocorydine is an alkaloid from Peumus boldus (boldo). (S)-Isocorydine belongs to the family of Aporphines. These are quinoline alkaloids containing the dibenzo[de,g]quinoline ring system.
(S)-2-Propylpiperidine is found in black elderberry. (S)-2-Propylpiperidine is an alkaloid of Amorphophalus rivieri (devil's tongue). (S)-2-Propylpiperidine belongs to the family of Alkaloids and Derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.
Okadaic acid is found in mollusks. Okadaic acid is found in the marine sponges Halichondria okadai and Halichondria melanodocia and shellfish. It is a metabolite of Prorocentrum lima. It is a diarrhetic shellfish toxin. Okadaic acid is a toxin that accumulates in bivalves and causes diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. The molecular formula of okadaic acid, which is a derivative of a C38 fatty acid, is C44H68O13. The IUPAC name of okadaic acid is (2R)-2-hydroxy-3-{(2S,5R,6R,8S)-5-hydroxy-[(1R,2E)-3-((2R,5R,6'S,8'R,8a'S)-8'-hydroxy-6'-{(1S,3S)-1-hydroxy-3-[(3R,6S)-3-methyl-1,7-dioxaspiro[5.5]undec-2-yl]butyl}-7'-methyleneoctahydro-3H,3'H-spiro[furan-2,2'-pyrano[3,2-b]pyran]-5-yl)-1-methylprop-2-en-1-yl]-10-methyl-1,7-dioxaspiro[5.5]undec-10-en-2-yl}-2-methylpropanoic acid. Okadaic acid was named from the marine sponge Halichondria okadai, from which okadaic acid was isolated for the first time. It has also been isolated from another marine sponge, H. malanodocia, as a cytotoxin. The real producer of okadaic acid is a marine dinoflagellate. Okadaic acid has been shown to exhibit anti-tumor, signalling, apoptotic and lipolytic functions  Okadaic acid belongs to the family of Okadaic Acids and Derivatives. These are heat-stable polyether and lipophilic compounds that accumulate in the fatty tissue of shellfish. (A3211, A3212, A3213, A3214).
Dinophysistoxin 1 is found in mollusks. Dinophysistoxin 1 is a metabolite of Dinophysis fortii. Dinophysistoxin 1 is found in scallops and mussels. Component toxin in diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. Dinophysistoxin 1 belongs to the family of Okadaic Acids and Derivatives. These are heat-stable polyether and lipophilic compounds that accumulate in the fatty tissue of shellfish.
Cyclochlorotine is a mycotoxin produced by the common food storage mould Penicillium islandicum. Cyclochlorotine belongs to the family of Hybrid Peptides. These are compounds containing at least two different types of amino acids (alpha, beta, gamma, delta).
Gonyautoxin I is found in mollusks. Gonyautoxin I is produced by Gonyaulax and Protogonyaulax species and isolated from shellfish. It is a neurotoxin and the causal agent, with Saxitoxin, of shellfish poisoning.
Gonyautoxin II is a neurotoxin that is a sodium channel blocker.
Isodomoic acid F is found in mollusks. Isodomoic acid F is isolated from mussels.
alpha-Solanine is found in alcoholic beverages. alpha-Solanine is an alkaloid from potato (Solanum tuberosum) and very many other Solanum species (Solanaceae). Responsible for the teratogenicity of sprouting potatoes.
alpha-Chaconine is found in potato. alpha-Chaconine is an alkaloid from Solanum chacoense and very many other Solanum species (Solanaceae). Alpha-chaconine has been shown to exhibit anti-angiogenic and anti-fungal functions  (A3215, A3216).
Gymnodimine is found in mollusks. Gymnodimine is isolated from New Zealand oysters (Tiostrea chilensis) and the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium cf. mikimotoi.
Alpha-zearalenol belongs to the family of Macrolides and Analogues. These are organic compounds containing a lactone ring of at least twelve members. The term 'macrolide' encompasses a diverse family of unrelated compounds with large macrolactam rings.
Beta-zearalenol belongs to the family of Macrolides and Analogues. These are organic compounds containing a lactone ring of at least twelve members. The term 'macrolide' encompasses a diverse family of unrelated compounds with large macrolactam rings.
Debromoaplysiatoxin is an algal toxin found in blue-green algae. It is one of the causative toxins of a series of red alga (Gracilaria coronopifolia) poisonings in Hawaii, which broke out in succession in September of 1994.
Senecionine is an organic compound with the chemical formula C18H25NO5. It is classified as a pyrrolizidine alkaloid.
Retronecine is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid found in a variety of plants in the genera Senecio and Crotalaria, and the family Boraginaceae. It is the most common central core for other pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Veratridine is a steroid-derived alkaloid from plants in the Liliaceae family that functions as a neurotoxin by activating sodium ion channels. It is primarily obtained from the herb Veratrum and sabadilla seeds. It binds to intramembrane receptor site 2 and increases intracellular Ca2+ concentration. It acts by preferentially binding to activated Na+ channels causing persistent activation that leads to increased nerve excitability.
Ranunculin is an instable glucoside found in plants of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). On maceration, for example when the plant is wounded, it is enzymatically broken down into glucose and the toxin protoanemonin.
Lycorine is a toxic crystalline alkaloid found in various Amaryllidaceae species, such as the cultivated bush lily (Clivia miniata), surprise lilies (Lycoris), and daffodils (Narcissus). It may be highly poisonous, or even lethal, when ingested in certain quantities. Symptoms of lycorine toxicity are vomiting, diarrhea, and convulsions. Lycorine, definition at mercksource.com Regardless, it is sometimes used medicinally, a reason why some groups may harvest the very popular Clivia miniata.
Mesaconitine is one of the Aconitum sp. alkaloids. It stimulates β-adrenoceptors and the consequent activation of intracellular processes can lead to the long-lasting changes in excitability.
Ryanodine is a poisonous alkaloid found in the South American plant Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae). It was originally used as an insecticide. The compound has extremely high affinity to the open-form ryanodine receptor, a group of calcium channels found in skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, and heart muscle cells. It binds with such high affinity to the receptor that it was used as a label for the first purification of that class of ion channels and gave its name to it.
Convallatoxin is a glycoside extracted from Convallaria majalis. Convallatoxin is also isolated from the trunk bark of Antiaris toxicaria (A15340).
C-Curarine is a Curare alkaloid that is structurally similar to D-tubocurarine. Curare is a non-depolarizing muscle relaxant that blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), one of the two types of acetylcholine (ACh) receptors, at the neuromuscular junction. The main toxin of curare, D-tubocurarine, occupies the same position on the receptor as ACh with an equal or greater affinity making it a competitive antagonist.
Phorbol is a natural, plant-derived organic compound. It is a member of the tigliane family of diterpenes. Phorbol was first isolated in 1934 as the hydrolysis product of croton oil, which is derived from the seeds of the purging croton, Croton tiglium. The structure of phorbol was determined in 1967. It is very soluble in most polar organic solvents, as well as in water.
Gelsemine is a toxic alkaloid found in the plant Gelsemium sempervirens. It has convulsant effects with a similar mechanism of action to strychnine. Due to its complex structure, gelsemine has been the target for a number of total synthesis projects.
Bicuculline is a light-sensitive competitive antagonist of GABAA receptors. It was originally identified in 1932 in plant alkaloid extracts and has been isolated from Dicentra cucullaria, Adlumia fungosa, Fumariaceae, and several Corydalis species. Since it blocks the inhibitory action of GABA receptors, the action of bicuculline mimics epilepsy. This property is utilized in laboratories across the world in the in vitro study of epilepsy, generally in hippocampal or cortical neurons in prepared brain slices from rodents. This compound is also routinely used to isolate glutamatergic (excitatory amino acid) receptor function.
The leaves and fruits of Coriaria myrtifolia contain coriamyrtin, a typical convulsant substance.
Lasiocarpine is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid that is found in the seeds of Heliotropium lasiocarpum, Heliotropium europaeum, and several other plant species, all members of the family Boraginaceae. Lasiocarpine is carcinogenic and leads to hepatocellular tumors and hematopoietic tumors in rats.
A furoquinoline alkaloid, dictamnine, is very common within the family Rutaceae. It is the main alkaloid in the roots of Dictamnus albus and responsible for the mutagenicity of the drug derived from crude extracts. Dictamnine was also reported to be a phototoxic and photomutagenic compound. It participates in the severe skin phototoxicity of the plant.
Matrine is an alkaloid found in plants from the Sophora genus. It has a variety of pharmacological effects, including anti-cancer effects, and action as a kappa opioid receptor and  &#956;-receptor agonist.
Cyclopamine is a naturally occurring chemical that belongs to the group of steroidal jerveratrum alkaloids. It is a teratogen isolated from the corn lily (Veratrum californicum) that causes usually fatal birth defects. It can prevent the fetal brain from dividing into two lobes (holoprosencephaly) and cause the development of a single eye (cyclopia). It does so by inhibiting the hedgehog signaling pathway (Hh). Cyclopamine is useful in studying the role of Hh in normal development, and as a potential treatment for certain cancers in which Hh is overexpressed.
Jervine is a steroidal alkaloid with molecular formula C27H39NO3 which is derived from the Veratrum plant genus. Similar to cyclopamine, which also occurs in the Veratrum genus, it is a teratogen implicated in birth defects when consumed by animals during a certain period of their gestation.
Veratramine is a hypotensive alkaloid isolated from the rhizomes of Veratrum.
Chelerythrine is a benzophenanthridine alkaloid extracted from the plant Greater celandine (Chelidonium majus). It is a potent, selective, and cell-permeable protein kinase C inhibitor.
Chelidonine is an isolate of Papaveraceae with acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitory activity.
Lyngbyatoxin A is a cyanotoxin produced by certain cyanobacteria species, notably <i>Moorea producens</i> (formerly classified as <i>Lyngbya majuscula</i>). It is used as a defensive secretion to protect this cyanobacteria from predation by fish, being a potent irritant and vesicant, as well as a carcinogen. Low concentrations more commonly encountered cause milder symptoms, known as seaweed dermatitis. The toxin is highly inflammatory and vesicatory.  It is also a strong tumor promoter through activation of protein kinase C.
Dicentrine is an anticancer compound isolated from Lindera, a species of flowering plants.
Nantenine is an alkaloid found in the plant Nandina domestica as well as some Corydalis species. It is an antagonist at both the alpha-1 adrenergic receptor and the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, and blocks both the behavioural and physiological effects of MDMA in animals.
Aristolochic acids are a family of carcinogenic, mutagenic, and nephrotoxic compounds commonly found in the Aristolochiaceae family of plants, including Aristolochia and Asarum (wild ginger), which are commonly used in Chinese herbal medicine. Aristolochic acid I is the most abundant of the aristolochic acids and is found in almost all Aristolochia species. Aristolochic acids are often accompanied by aristolactams.
Anatoxin-a, also known as Very Fast Death Factor, is a secondary, bicyclic amine alkaloid and cyanotoxin with acute neurotoxicity. It was first discovered in the early 1960s in Canada, and was isolated in 1972. The toxin is produced by seven different genera of cyanobacteria and has been reported in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, and New Zealand. Symptoms of anatoxin exposure include loss of coordination, muscular fasciculations, convulsions and death by respiratory paralysis. Its mode of action is through the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) where it acts as an agonist of acetylcholine. As such, anatoxin-a has been used for medicinal purposes to investigate diseases characterized by low acetylcholine levels. Due to its high toxicity and potential presence in drinking water, anatoxin-a poses a threat to humans and animals. While methods for detection and water treatment exist, scientists have called for more research to improve reliability and efficacy. Anatoxin-a is not to be confused with anatoxin-a(S), another potent cyanotoxin that has a similar mechanism of action to that of anatoxin-a and is produced by many of the same cyanobacteria genera, but is structurally unrelated.
Brevetoxin-B (BTX-B, 1), produced by the red tide organism, Gymnodium breVe Davis, is the first member of marine polycyclic ethers to be structurally elucidated and one of the most potent neurotoxins. The structural feature of this compound is a trans-fused polycyclic ether ring system with 23 stereocenters, which contains six-, seven-, and eight-membered ether rings, three carbon-carbon double bonds, one hydroxyl group, and two carbonyl groups  (A3250).
Anatoxin-a(s) is a natural organophosphate found in <i>Anabaena flos-aquae</i>. It irreversibly inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE), similar to organophosphorous and carbamate insecticides and some chemical warfare agents. When AChE is inhibited, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is no longer hydrolyzed in the synapse, the postsynaptic membrane cannot be repolarized, and nerve influx is blocked. Anatoxin-a(s) is highly toxic for mammals when the toxigenic cyanobacteria produce mass populations in drinking water (A3257).
Dimethylamine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.  Dimethylamine (DMA) is an organic secondary amine. It is a colorless, liquefied and flammable gas with an ammonia and fish-like odor. Dimethylamine is abundantly present in human urine. Main sources of urinary DMA have been reported to include trimethylamine N-oxide, a common food component, and asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA), an endogenous inhibitor of nitric oxide (NO) synthesis. ADMA is excreted in the urine in part unmetabolized and in part after hydrolysis to DMA by dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase (DDAH). Statistically significant increases in urinary DMA have been found in individuals after the consumption of fish and seafoods. The highest values were obtained for individuals that consumed coley, squid and whiting with cod, haddock, sardine, skate and swordfish As a pure chemical substance Dimethylamine is used as dehairing agent in tanning, in dyes, in rubber accelerators, in soaps and cleaning compounds and as an agricultural fungicide. In the body, DMA also undergoes nitrosation under weak acid conditions to give dimethlynitrosamine.
Guanidinoacetic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Guanidoacetic acid is a metabolite in the Urea cycle and metabolism of amino groups, and in the metabolic pathways of several amino acids. This includes glycine, serine, threonine, arginine and proline metabolism. Guanidinoacetic acid is also a precursor of creatine, an essential substrate for muscle energy metabolism.
Hypoxanthine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Hypoxanthine is a naturally occurring purine derivative and a reaction intermediate in the metabolism of adenosine and in the formation of nucleic acids by the salvage pathway. Hypoxanthine is also a spontaneous deamination product of adenine. Lesch-Nyhan disease is caused by deficiency of the purine salvage enzyme hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase.
Indoleacetic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.

Indoleacetic acid (IAA) is a breakdown product of tryptophan metabolism and is often produced by the action of bacteria in the mammalian gut. Some endogenous production of IAA in mammalian tissues also occurs. It may be produced by the decarboxylation of tryptamine or the oxidative deamination of tryptophan. IAA frequently occurs at low levels in urine and has been found in elevated levels in the urine of patients with phenylketonuria ( Using material extracted from human urine, it was discovered by Kogl in 1933 that Indoleacetic acid is also an important plant hormone Specifically IAA is a member of the group of phytohormones called auxins. IAA is generally considered to be the most important native auxin. Plant cells synthesize IAA from tryptophan. IAA and some derivatives can be oxidised by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) to cytotoxic species. IAA is only toxic after oxidative decarboxylation; the effect of IAA/HRP is thought to be due in part to the formation of methylene-oxindole, which may conjugate with DNA bases and protein thiols. IAA/HRP could be used as the basis for targeted cancer therapy involving antibody-, polymer-, or gene-directed approaches, a potential new role for plant auxins in cancer therapy. (A3268, A3269).
Phenylacetic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Phenyl acetate (or phenylacetate) is a carboxylic acid ester that has been found in the biofluids of patients with nephritis and/or hepatitis as well as patients with phenylketonuria (PKU). Excess phenylalanine in the body can be disposed of through a transamination process leading to the production of phenylpyruvate. The phenylpyruvate can be further metabolized into a number of products. Decarboxylation of phenylpyruvate gives phenylacetate, while a reduction reaction gives phenyllactate. The phenylacetate can be further conjugated with glutamine to give phenylacetyl glutamine. All of these metabolites can be detected in serum and urine of PKU patients. Phenyl acetate is also produced endogenously as the metabolite of 2-Phenylethylamine, which is mainly metabolized by monoamine oxidase to form phenyl acetate. 2-phenylethylamine is an endogenous amphetamine which may modulate central adrenergic functions, and the urinary phenyl acetate levels have been postulated as a marker for depression. Phenylacetate is also found in essential oils, e.g. neroli, rose oil, free and as esters' and in many fruits. As a result it is used as a perfumery and flavoring ingredient. (1, 2, 3).
Noradrenalin is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic. [PubChem]
Indican is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.   
It is a colourless organic compound, soluble in water, naturally occurring in Indigofera plants. It is a precursor of indigo dye. Indican interferes with many commercial procedures for measuring total bilirubin[6] which can be a problem for renal failure patients where blood indican levels are raised. It can cause gastrointestinal symptoms in patients where protein absorption is reduced - like Hartnup's disease, allowing for greater bacterial decomposition of the Tryptophan to indole and its conversion to indican.
Indoxyl sulfate is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Indoxyl sulfate is a dietary protein metabolite, and also the metabolite of the common amino acid tryptophan. Indoxyl sulfate is a circulating uremic toxin stimulating glomerular sclerosis and interstitial fibrosis. Indoxyl sulfate is one of the well known substances of a group of protein-bound uremic retention solutes. Indoxyl sulfate increases the rate of progression of renal failure. In plasma, indoxyl sulfate is a protein-bound uremic solute that induces endothelial dysfunction by inhibiting endothelial proliferation and migration in vitro. Some studies suggest that indoxyl sulfate is also involved in oxidative stress. In hemodialyzed patients, serum levels of indoxyl sulfate are associated with levels of pentosidine, a marker of carbonyl and oxidative stress; in vitro, indoxyl sulfate increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in tubular cells, and increases NAD(P)H oxidase activity in endothelial cells. Indoxyl sulfate impairs osteoblst function and induces abnormalities of bone turnover. Indoxyl sulfate strongly decreases the levels of glutathione, one of the most active antioxidant systems of the cell. (A3273, A3274, A3275, A3276).
Hippuric acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Hippuric acid is an acyl glycine formed by the conjugation of benzoic aicd with glycine. Acyl glycines are produced through the action of glycine N-acyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.13) which is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction: acyl-CoA + glycine < -- > CoA + N-acylglycine. Hippuric acid is a normal component of urine and is typically increased with increased consumption of phenolic compounds (tea, wine, fruit juices). These phenols are converted to benzoic acid which is then converted to hippuric acid and excreted in the urine. Hippuric acid is the most frequently used biomarker in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to toluene. This product of solvent biotransformation may be also found in the urine of individuals who have not been exposed to the solvent. A smaller fraction of the absorbed toluene is oxidized to aromatic compounds including ortho-cresol, which is not found significantly in the urine of nonexposed individuals. The concentration of hippuric acid in the urine of individuals exposed to a low toluene concentration does not differ from that of individuals not exposed to the solvent. This has led to the conclusion that hippuric acid should not be utilized in the biological monitoring of occupational exposure to low levels of toluene in the air. Protein-bound organic acids such as hippuric acid are markedly accumulated in uremic plasma and produce defective protein binding of drugs. (A3277, A3278).
Neopterin is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Neopterin is a pteridine derivative present in body fluids; elevated levels result from immune system activation, malignant disease, allograft rejection, and viral infections. (From Stedman, 26th ed) Neopterin also serves as a precursor in the biosynthesis of biopterin.
Trimethylamine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Trimethylamine, also known as NMe3, N(CH3)3, and TMA, is a colorless, hygroscopic, and flammable simple amine with a typical fishy odor in low concentrations and an ammonia like odor in higher concentrations. Trimethylamine has a boiling point of 2.9 degree centigrade and is a gas at room temperature. Trimethylamine usually comes in pressurized gas cylinders or as a 40% solution in water. Trimethylamine is a nitrogenous base and its positively charged cation is called trimethylammonium cation. A common salt of trimethylamine is trimethylammonium chloride, a hygroscopic colorless solid. Trimethylamine is a product of decomposition of plants and animals. It is the substance mainly responsible for the fishy odor often associated with fouling fish, bacterial vagina infections, and bad breath. It is also associated with taking large doses of choline. Trimethylaminuria is a genetic disorder in which the body is unable to metabolize trimethylamine from food sources. Patients develop a characteristic fish odour of their sweat, urine, and breath after the consumption of choline-rich foods. Trimethylaminuria is an autosomal recessive disorder involving a trimethylamine oxidase deficiency. Trimethylaminuria has also been observed in a certain breed of Rhode Island Red chicken that produces eggs with a fishy smell.
2-Aminobenzoic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.  
2-Aminobenzoic acid is an organic compound. It is a substrate of enzyme anthranilate hydroxylase [EC 1.14.13.35] in benzoate degradation via hydroxylation pathway (KEGG).
Spermine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Spermine is associated with nucleic acids, particularly in viruses, and is thought to stabilize the helical structure. [PubChem]
Spermidine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Spermidine is a polyamine formed from putrescine. It is found in almost all tissues in association with nucleic acids. It is found as a cation at all pH values, and is thought to help stabilize some membranes and nucleic acid structures. It is a precursor of spermine.
Nicotinamide is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Niacinamide or vitamin B3 is an important compound functioning as a component of the coenzyme NAD. Its primary significance is in the prevention and/or cure of blacktongue and pellagra. Most animals cannot manufacture this compound in amounts sufficient to prevent nutritional deficiency and it therefore must be supplemented through dietary intake. Niacinamide is used to increase the effect of radiation therapy on tumor cells. Niacin (nicotinic acid) and niacinamide, while both labeled as vitamin B3 also have different applications. Niacinamide is useful in arthritis and early-onset type I diabetes while niacin is an effective reducer of high cholesterol levels.
Methylguanidine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Methylguanidine (MG) is a guanidine compound deriving from protein catabolism. It is also a product of putrefaction. Methylguanidine is a suspected uraemic toxin that accumulates in renal failure, however it also exhibits anti-inflammatory effects. Methylguanidine is synthesized from creatinine concomitant with the synthesis of hydrogen peroxide from endogenous substrates in peroxisomes. Recent evidence suggests that methylguanidine significantly inhibits iNOS activity and TNF- release. This means that methylguandine can attenuate the degree of inflammation and tissue damage associated with endotoxic shock.
Asymmetric dimethylarginine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) is a naturally occurring chemical found in blood plasma. It is a metabolic by-product of continual protein modification processes in the cytoplasm of all human cells. It is closely related to L-arginine, a conditionally-essential amino acid. ADMA interferes with L-arginine in the production of nitric oxide, a key chemical to endothelial and hence cardiovascular health. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is created in protein methylation, a common mechanism of post-translational protein modification. This reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme set called S-adenosylmethionine protein N-methyltransferases (protein methylases I and II). The methyl groups transferred to create ADMA are derived from the methyl group donor S-adenosylmethionine, an intermediate in the metabolism of homocysteine. (Homocysteine is an important blood chemical, because it is also a marker of cardiovascular disease). After synthesis, ADMA migrates into the extracellular space and thence into blood plasma. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is measured using high performance liquid chromatography.
Guaniidine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Guanidine is a polyamine that can function as a strong organic base existing primarily as guanidium ions at physiological pH. With a pKa of 12.5, guanidine is protonated, with a charge of +1 in physiological conditions. It is found in the urine as a normal product of protein metabolism. It is also used in laboratory research as a protein denaturant. (From Martindale, the Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed and Merck Index, 12th ed). Guanidine is a crystalline compound of strong alkalinity formed by the oxidation of guanine. It is used in the manufacture of plastics and explosives.
Arginic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Tissue accumulation of argininic acid (AA) occurs in hyperargininemia. Hyperargininemia, an inborn error of the urea cycle, is caused by a severe deficiency of liver arginase, resulting in elevated tissue levels of arginine (Arg) and other guanidino compounds (GC). Affected patients present a neurological syndrome consisting of a variable degree of mental retardation, epilepsy and progressive spasticity whose pathophysiology is far from understood. Guanidino compounds accumulate in other pathological conditions such as uremia and epilepsy and some evidence supports the hypothesis that these compounds contribute to the neurological dysfunction characteristic of these diseases. The increase of these compounds occurs by blockage of the arginase reaction, activating secondary biochemical pathways. Thus, Arg is converted to _-keto-_-guanidinovaleric acid by transamination, and this compound forms AA by hydrogenation. (A3288).
Guanidinosuccinic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Guanidinosuccinic acid (GSA) is one of the earliest uremic toxins isolated and its toxicity identified. Its metabolic origins show that it arose from the oxidation of argininosuccinic acid (ASA) by free radicals. The stimulus for this oxidation, occurring optimally in the presence of the failed kidney, is the rising level of urea which, through enzyme inhibition, results in a decline in hepatic levels of the semi-essential amino acid, arginine. It is further noted that concentrations of GSA in both serum and urine decline sharply in animals and humans exposed to the essential amino acid, methionine. Uremic patients suffer from a defective ability to generate methyl groups due to anorexia, dietary restrictions and renal protein leakage. This leads to the accumulation of homocysteine, a substance known to produce vascular damage. Even in healthy subjects intake of choline together with methionine is insufficient to satisfy total metabolic requirements for methyl groups. In end-stage renal disease, therefore, protein restriction contributes to the build-up of toxins in uremia. Replacement using specific amino acid mixtures should be directed toward identified deficiencies and adequacy monitored by following serum levels of the related toxins, in this case GSA and homocysteine. (A3289).
8-Hydroxy-deoxyguanosine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 

8-Hydroxy-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) is a sensitive marker of the DNA damage due to hydroxyl radical attack at the C8 of guanine. This damage, if left unrepaired, has been proposed to contribute to mutagenicity and cancer promotion.
Symmetric dimethylarginine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is an endogenously produced inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase (EC-Number 1.14.13.39). However, elevated levels of SDMA occur in patients with vascular disease, especially suffering end-stage renal disease. (A3290).
N-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
N-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide (2PY) is one of the end products of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD) degradation. Increased serum 2PY concentrations are observed in chronic renal failure (CRF) patients, which along with the deterioration of kidney function and its toxic properties (significant inhibition of PARP-1), suggests that 2PY is an uremic toxin. (A3294).
N-methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
N1-Methyl-4-pyridone-5-carboxamide (4PY ) is a normal human metabolite (one of the end products of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide (NAD) degradation). 4PY concentration in serum is elevated in non-dialyzed chronic renal failure (CRF) patients when compared with controls. (A3294).
4-Hydroxynonenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
4-Hydroxynonenal (HNE), one of the major end products of lipid peroxidation, has been shown to be involved in signal transduction and available evidence suggests that it can affect cell cycle events in a concentration-dependent manner. glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) can modulate the intracellular concentrations of HNE by affecting its generation during lipid peroxidation by reducing hydroperoxides and also by converting it into a glutathione conjugate. Overexpression of the Alpha class GSTs in cells leads to lower steady-state levels of HNE, and these cells acquire resistance to apoptosis induced by lipid peroxidation-causing agents such as H(2)O(2), UVA, superoxide anion, and pro-oxidant xenobiotics, suggesting that signaling for apoptosis by these agents is transduced through HNE. Cells with the capacity to exclude HNE from the intracellular environment at a faster rate are relatively more resistant to apoptosis caused by H(2)O(2), UVA, superoxide anion, and pro-oxidant xenobiotics as well as by HNE, suggesting that HNE may be a common denominator in mechanisms of apoptosis caused by oxidative stress. Transfection of adherent cells with HNE-metabolizing GSTs leads to transformation of these cells due to depletion of HNE. (A3295).
Hexanal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Hexanal is an alkyl aldehyde found in human biofluids. Human milk samples collected from women contains hexanal. Among mediators of oxidative stress, highly reactive secondary aldehydic lipid peroxidation products can initiate the processes of spontaneous mutagenesis and carcinogenesis and can also act as a growth-regulating factors and signaling molecules. In specimens obtained from adult patients with brain astrocytomas, lower levels of n-hexanal are associated with poorer patient prognosis. Hexanal is a volatile compound that has been associated with the development of undesirable flavours. The content of hexanal, which is a major breakdown product of linoleic acid (LA, n - 6 PUFA) oxidation, has been used to follow the course of lipid oxidation and off-flavour development in foods, and have been proposed as one potential marker of milk quality. A cardboard-like off-flavour is frequently associated with dehydrated milk products. This effect is highly correlated with the headspace concentration of hexanal. (A7871, A7872).
Decanal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Decanal is an organic compound with the chemical formula C9H19CHO. It is the simplest ten-carbon aldehyde. Decanal occurs naturally and is used in fragrances and flavoring. Decanal occurs in nature and is an important component in citrus along with octanal, citral, and sinensal. Decanal is also an important component of buckwheat odour .
p-Cresol sulfate is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
p-Cresol sulfate is a microbial metabolite that is found in urine and likely derives from secondary metabolism of p-cresol. It appears to be elevated in the urine of individuals with progressive multiple sclerosis p-Cresol sulfate is the major component of urinary MBPLM (myelin basic protein-like material). p-Cresol sulfate is a small protein-bound molecule that is poorly cleared with dialysis and is often considered to be a uremic toxin. Uremic toxins include low-molecular-weight compounds such as indoxyl sulfate, p-cresol sulfate, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid and asymmetric dimethylarginine It has also been linked to cardiovascular disease and oxidative injury. (A3297, A3298).
Ethylamine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Ethylamine is a simple aliphatic amine. It is component of normal human urine it has been suggested that this short chain aliphatic chain play significant role in the central nervous system disturbances observe during hepatic and renal disease especially when the blood brain barrier is compromised. (A3299).
2-Octenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
2-Octenal is a flavouring ingredient. 2-Octenal belongs to the family of Medium-chain Aldehydes. These are An aldehyde with a chain length containing between 6 and 12 carbon atoms.
2-Nonenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
2-Nonenal is found in alcoholic beverages. 2-Nonenal is widespread in nature, in beer, coffee, watermelon, cucumbers, redcurrants, orris oil, palm oil, potatoes etc. 2-Nonenal is a flavouring ingredient. 2-Nonenal belongs to the family of Medium-chain Aldehydes. These are An aldehyde with a chain length containing between 6 and 12 carbon atoms.
Heptanal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Heptanal is found in allspice. Heptanal is found in essential oils of ylang-ylang, clary sage, California orange, bitter orange and others. Heptanal is a flavouring agent Heptanal or heptanaldehyde is an alkyl aldehyde with a strong fruity odor which is used as an ingredient in cosmetics, perfumes, and flavors. It can be obtained from castor oil by distillation under reduced pressure. Industrially, it is used in the manufacture of 1-heptanol and ethyl heptanoate. Heptanal belongs to the family of Medium-chain Aldehydes. These are An aldehyde with a chain length containing between 6 and 12 carbon atoms.
2-Hexenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
2-Hexenal is found in allspice. 2-Hexenal is used in perfumery and flavourings. 2-Hexenal belongs to the family of Medium-chain Aldehydes. These are An aldehyde with a chain length containing between 6 and 12 carbon atoms.
2-Heptenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
2-Heptenal is found in pulses. 2-Heptenal is isolated from soya bean oil (Glycine max). 2-Heptenal is a flavouring constituent of many foods.
4-Decenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
4-Decenal is a flavouring ingredient.
Nonanal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
Nonanal belongs to the family of Medium-chain Aldehydes. These are An aldehyde with a chain length containing between 6 and 12 carbon atoms.
4-Hydroxydecenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
4-Hydroxydecenal is detectd in extent and kinetic of both processes which investigated during oxidative damage of isolated rat liver mitochondria treated with iron/ascorbate.
4-Hydroxyhexenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
It is one of non-enzymic lipid mediators of ARA and DHA metabolism, which are chemical messengers that are formed in response to cell stimulation or injury from membrane phospholipids, sphingolipid, and cholesterol.
4-Hydroxyoctenal is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
It is one of non-enzymic lipid mediators of ARA and DHA metabolism, which are chemical messengers that are formed in response to cell stimulation or injury from membrane phospholipids, sphingolipid, and cholesterol. It elicits a neutrophil chemotactic response in the presenece of albumin in vitro. It is one of non-enzymic lipid mediators of ARA and DHA metabolism, which are chemical messengers that are formed in response to cell stimulation or injury from membrane phospholipids, sphingolipid, and cholesterol.
Alpha-keto-delta-guanidinoacetic acid is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
In all brain regions studied, concentrations of alpha-keto-delta-guanidinovaleric acid remained below detection limits in controls as well as in uremic patients.
3-Carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furan-propanoic acid(CMPF) is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.
3-Carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furan-propanoic acid(CMPF) is significantly accumulated in the serum of chronic kidney disease patients and is considered to be a potent uremic toxin There are several minor derivatives of CMPF that have been detected in serum and urine including 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-pentyl-2-furanpropionic acid, 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-ethyl-2-furanpropionic acid and 3-carboxy-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid. CMPF was first detected in human urine in 1979 and it is believed to be formed from the consumption of fish, vegetables and fruits CMPF is a strong inhibitor of mitochondrial respiration and is associated with thyroid dysfunction CMPF also directly inhibits renal secretion of various drugs and endogenous organic acids by competitively inhibiting OAT3 transporters It is also thought to contribute to various neurological abnormalities because it inhibits the transport of organic acids at the blood-brain barrier (A3278, A3302, A3303, A3304).
Carboxymethyllysine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
N(6)-Carboxymethyllysine (CML), also known as N(epsilon)-(carboxymethyl)lysine, is an advanced glycation endproduct (AGE). CML has been the most used marker for AGEs in food analysis.
Dihydroxyphenylalanine is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease. 
Dihydroxyphenylalanine(DOPA) is the precursor to the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), and epinephrine (adrenaline) collectively known as catecholamines. DOPA crosses the protective blood-brain barrier, whereas dopamine itself cannot. Thus, L-DOPA is used to increase dopamine concentrations in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and dopamine-responsive dystonia.
Inodxyl glucuronide is a uremic toxin.  Uremic toxins can be subdivided into three major groups based upon their chemical and physical characteristics: 1) small, water-soluble, non-protein-bound compounds, such as urea; 2) small, lipid-soluble and/or protein-bound compounds, such as the phenols and 3) larger so-called middle-molecules, such as beta2-microglobulin. Chronic exposure of uremic toxins can lead to a number of conditions including renal damage, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.   
Inodxyl glucuronide is a natural human metabolite of Inodxyl generated in the liver by UDP glucuonyltransferase. Glucuronidation is used to assist in the excretion of toxic substances, drugs or other substances that cannot be used as an energy source. Glucuronic acid is attached via a glycosidic bond to the substance, and the resulting glucuronide, which has a much higher water solubility than the original substance, is eventually excreted by the kidneys.
Caffeic acid is a polyphenol present in normal human urine positively correlated to coffee consumption and influenced by the dietary intake of diverse types of food.  (A3305).
Mechlorethamine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a vesicant and necrotizing irritant destructive to mucous membranes. It was formerly used as a war gas. The hydrochloride is used as an antineoplastic in Hodgkin's disease and lymphomas. It causes severe gastrointestinal and bone marrow damage. Alkylating agents work by three different mechanisms: 1) attachment of alkyl groups to DNA bases, resulting in the DNA being fragmented by repair enzymes in their attempts to replace the alkylated bases, preventing DNA synthesis and RNA transcription from the affected DNA, 2) DNA damage via the formation of cross-links (bonds between atoms in the DNA) which prevents DNA from being separated for synthesis or transcription, and 3) the induction of mispairing of the nucleotides leading to mutations. Mechlorethamine is cell cycle phase-nonspecific.
Ethylene oxide is also called oxirane. It is a cyclic ether that is a colorless flammable gas at room temperature, with a faintly sweet odor. It is the simplest epoxide known. Because of its special molecular structure, ethylene oxide easily participates in addition reactions; e.g., opening its ring and thus easily polymerizing. Ethylene oxide is a vital industrial chemical with diverse applications, including the manufacture of polysorbate 20 and polyethylene glycol. Ethylene oxide itself is a very hazardous substance: at room temperature it is a flammable, carcinogenic, mutagenic and irritating. It is also an anaesthetic gas with a misleadingly pleasant aroma. Although too dangerous for direct household use and generally unfamiliar to consumers, ethylene oxide is used industrially for making many consumer products as well as non-consumer chemicals and intermediates. Ethylene oxide is important or critical to the production of detergents, thickeners, solvents, plastics, and various organic chemicals such as ethylene glycol, ethanolamines, simple and complex glycols, polyglycol ethers and other compounds. As a poison gas that leaves no residue on items it contacts, pure ethylene oxide is a disinfectant that is widely used in hospitals and the medical equipment industry to replace steam in the sterilization of heat-sensitive tools and equipment, such as disposable plastic syringes. A very small amount (less than 1%) is used to control insects on stored agricultural products such as nuts and spices.
Acetamide is found in red beetroot. Acetamide (or acetic acid amide or ethanamide), CH3CONH2, the amide of acetic acid, is a white crystalline solid in pure form. It is produced by dehydrating ammonium acetate. Acetamide has been shown to exhibit anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic and antibiotic functions. Acetamide belongs to the family of Primary Carboxylic Acid Amides. These are compounds comprising primary carboxylic acid amide functional group, with the general structure RC(=O)NH2. (A3310, A3311, A3311, A3312).
2-Aminonaphthalene is an aromatic amine. It is used to make azo dyes. It is a known human carcinogen and has largely been replaced by less toxic compounds. 2-Aminonaphthalene is prepared by heating 2-naphthol with ammonium zinc chloride to 200-210 °C; or in the form of its acetyl derivative by heating 2-naphthol with ammonium acetate to 270-280 °C. It forms odorless, colorless plates which melt at 111-112 °C. It gives no color with ferric chloride. When reduced by sodium in boiling amyl alcohol solution it forms alicyclic tetrahydro-3-naphthylamine, which has most of the properties of the aliphatic amines; it is strongly alkaline in reaction, has an ammoniacal odor and cannot be diazotized. On oxidation it yields ortho-carboxy-hydrocinnamic acid, HO2CC6H4CH2CH2CO2H. Numerous sulfonic acidsderived from 2-aminonaphthalene are known. Of these, the delta-acid and Bronner's acid are of more value technically, since they combine with ortho-tetrazoditolyl to produce fine red dye-stuffs. 2-Aminonaphthalene is found in cigarette smoke and suspected to contribute to the development of bladder cancer.
Diethylamine is a secondary amine with the molecular structure CH3CH2NHCH2CH3. It is a flammable, strongly alkaline liquid. It is miscible with water and ethanol. It is a colorless liquid which often appears brown due to impurities. It is volatile and has a strong unpleasant odor.
N'-nitrosonornicotine belongs to the family of Pyrrolidinylpyridines. These are compounds containing a pyrrolidinylpyridine ring system, which consists of a pyrrolidine ring linked to a pyridine ring.
Approximately 95% of nitrobenzene is consumed in the production of aniline, which is a precursor to rubber chemicals, pesticides, dyes, explosives, and pharmaceuticals. Nitrobenzene is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5NO2. It is a water-insoluble pale yellow oil with an almond-like odor. It freezes to give greenish-yellow crystals. It is produced on a large scale from benzene as a precursor to aniline. In the laboratory, it is occasionally used as a solvent, especially for electrophilic reagents. Nitrobenzene is prepared by nitration of benzene with a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid, water, and nitric acid. This mixture is sometimes called 'mixed acid.' The production of nitrobenzene is one of the most dangerous processes conducted in the chemical industry because of the exothermicity of the reaction ( delta H = 117 kJ/mol).
The chemical properties of the toluidines are quite similar to those of aniline and toluidines have properties in common with other aromatic amines. Due to the amino group bonded to the aromatic ring, the toluidines are weakly basic. None of the toluidines is very soluble in pure water, but will become soluble if the aqueous solution is acidic due to formation of ammonium salts, as usual for organic amines. At room temperature and pressure, ortho- and meta-toluidines are viscous liquids, but para-toluidine is a flaky solid. This can be explained by the fact that the p-toluidine molecules are more symmetrical and fit into a crystalline structure more easily. p-Toluidine can be obtained from reduction of p-nitrotoluene. p-Toluidine reacts with formaldehyde to form Troger's base.
2,6-Dimethylaniline is a metabolite of lidocaine. Lidocaine, Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery.
Glycidol is an organic compound that contains both epoxide and alcohol functional groups. Being bifunctional, it has a variety of industrial uses. The compound is a slightly viscous liquid that is slightly unstable and is not often encountered in pure form. Glycidol is an irritant of the skin, eyes, mucous membranes, and upper respiratory tract. Exposure to glycidol may also cause central nervous system depression, followed by central nervous system stimulation.
Cylindrospermopsin (abbreviated to CYN, or CYL) is a cyanotoxin produced by a variety of freshwater cyanobacteria. CYN is a polycyclic uracil derivative containing guanidino and sulfate groups. It is also zwitterionic, making it highly water soluble. CYN is toxic to liver and kidney tissue and is thought to inhibit protein synthesis and to covalently modify DNA and/or RNA. It is not known whether cylindrospermopsin is a carcinogen, but it appears to have no tumour initiating activity in mice.
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), also known as lipoglycans and endotoxin, are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, and elicit strong immune responses in animals. LPS acts as the prototypical endotoxin because it binds the CD14/TLR4/MD2 receptor complex in many cell types, but especially in monocytes, dendritic cells, macrophages and B cells, which promotes the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, nitric oxide, and eicosanoids. LPS is also an exogenous pyrogen (external fever-inducing substance).
Aplysiatoxin is a cyanotoxin produced by certain cyanobacteria species. It is used as a defensive secretion to protect these cyanobacteria from predation by fish, being a potent irritant and carcinogen, by acting as a powerful activator of Protein kinase C. It has dermatotoxic activity causing inflamation of the skin. They are also potent tumour promoters.
Fumaric acid is a precursor to L-malate in the Krebs tricarboxylic acid cycle. It is formed by the oxidation of succinate by succinate dehydrogenase. Fumarate is converted by fumarase to malate. A fumarate is a salt or ester of the organic compound fumaric acid, a dicarboxylic acid. Fumarate has recently been recognized as an oncometabolite. (A15199). As a food additive, fumaric acid is used to impart a tart taste to processed foods. It is also used as an antifungal agent in boxed foods such as cake mixes and flours, as well as tortillas. Fumaric acid is also added to bread to increase the porosity of the final baked product. It is used to impart a sour taste to sourdough and rye bread. In cake mixes, it is used to maintain a low pH and prevent clumping of the flours used in the mix. In fruit drinks, fumaric acid is used to maintain a low pH which, in turn, helps to stabilize flavor and color. Fumaric acid also prevents the growth of E. coli in beverages when used in combination with sodium benzoate. When added to wines, fumaric acid helps to prevent further fermentation and yet maintain low pH and eliminate traces of metallic elements. In this fashion, it helps to stabilize the taste of wine. Fumaric acid can also be added to dairy products, sports drinks, jams, jellies and candies. Fumaric acid helps to break down bonds between gluten proteins in wheat and helps to create a more pliable dough. Fumaric acid is used in paper sizing, printer toner, and polyester resin for making molded walls.
Androstenedione is a delta-4 19-carbon steroid that is produced not only in the testis, but also in the ovary and the adrenal cortex. Depending on the tissue type, androstenedione can serve as a precursor to testosterone as well as estrone and estradiol. It is the common precursor of male and female sex hormones. Some androstenedione is also secreted into the plasma, and may be converted in peripheral tissues to testosterone and estrogens. Androstenedione originates either from the conversion of dehydroepiandrosterone or from 17-hydroxyprogesterone. It is further converted to either testosterone or estrone. The production of adrenal androstenedione is governed by ACTH, while production of gonadal androstenedione is under control by gonadotropins.
Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate or DHEAS is the sulfated form of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). This sulfation is reversibly catalyzed by sulfotransferase 2A1 (SULT2A1) primarily in the adrenals, the liver, and small intestine. In the blood, most DHEA is found as DHEAS with levels that are about 300 times higher than those of free DHEA. Orally-ingested DHEA is converted to its sulfate when passing through intestines and liver. Whereas DHEA levels naturally reach their peak in the early morning hours, DHEAS levels show no diurnal variation. From a practical point of view, measurement of DHEAS is preferable to DHEA, as levels are more stable. DHEA (from which DHEAS comes from) is a natural steroid prohormone produced from cholesterol by the adrenal glands, the gonads, adipose tissue, brain and in the skin (by an autocrine mechanism). DHEA is the precursor of androstenedione, which can undergo further conversion to produce the androgen testosterone and the estrogens estrone and estradiol. DHEA is also a potent sigma-1 agonist. DHEAS can serve as a precursor for testosterone; androstenedione; estradiol; and estrone. Serum dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is a classic marker for adrenarche and, subsequently, for the individual hormonal milieu  Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate is an endogenously produced sex steroid that has been hypothesized to have anti aging effects  It also has been inversely associated with development of atherosclerosis  (A3325, A3326, A3327). DHEA-S is the principal adrenal androgen and is secreted together with cortisol under the control of ACTH and prolactin. DHEA-S is elevated with hyperprolactinemia.
11-Deoxycorticosterone (also called desoxycortone, 21-hydroxyprogesterone, DOC, or simply deoxycorticosterone) is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal gland that possesses mineralocorticoid activity and acts as a precursor to aldosterone. It is classified as a member of the 21-hydroxysteroids. 21-hydroxysteroids are steroids carrying a hydroxyl group at the 21-position of the steroid backbone. Deoxycorticosterone is very hydrophobic, practically insoluble (in water), and relatively neutral. Deoxycorticosterone can be synthesized from progesterone by 21-beta-hydroxylase and is then converted to corticosterone by 11-beta-hydroxylase. Corticosterone is then converted to aldosterone by aldosterone synthase. Deoxycorticosterone can be found throughout all human tissues and has been detected in amniotic fluid and blood. When present in sufficiently high levels, deoxycorticosterone can act as a hypertensive agent and a metabotoxin. A hypertensive agent increases blood pressure and causes the production of more urine. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels.  Chronically high levels of deoxycorticosterone are associated with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) and with adrenal tumors producing deoxycorticosterone (PMID: 20671982). High levels of this mineralocorticoid are associated with resistant hypertension, which can result in polyuria, polydipsia, increased blood volume, edema, and cardiac enlargement.
2-Hydroxyadipic acid is a hydroxy-dicarboxylic acid formed by the reduction of 2-ketoadipic acid. A deficiency of 2-ketoadipic dehydrogenase causes 2-ketoadipic acidemia or 2-oxoadipic acidemia (OMIM: 245130), a genetic disorder characterized by accumulation and excretion of 2-hydroxyadipic acid (with 2-ketoadipic and 2-aminoadipic) (OMMBID - The Online Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, CH.95). When present in sufficiently high levels, 2-hydroxyadipic acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of 2-hydroxyadipic acid are associated with at least three inborn errors of metabolism including  2-oxoadipic acidemia, 2-aminoadipic aciduria, and 2-oxoadipic aciduria. 2-Hydroxyadipic acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart abnormalities, kidney abnormalities, liver damage, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of the untreated IEMs mentioned above. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and seizures.
3-Methylglutaconic acid is an intermediate (as the CoA thioester) in the leucine degradative pathway as well as the mevalonate shunt, a pathway that links isoprenoid metabolism with mitochondrial acetyl-CoA metabolism (PMID: 7603789). 3-methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase is involved in the metabolism process of 3-methylglutaconic acid. When present in sufficiently high levels, 3-methylglutaconic acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of 3-methylglutaconic acid are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism including 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase deficiency, 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type I, 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type III, 3-methylglutaconic aciduria type IV, and guanidinoacetate methyltransferase deficiency (GAMT deficiency). 3-Methylglutaconic acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of the untreated IEMs mentioned above. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and seizures.
5-Aminolevulinic acid is an intermediate in heme synthesis. This is the first compound in the porphyrin synthesis pathway. It is produced by the enzyme ALA synthase, from glycine and succinyl CoA. This reaction is known as the Shemin pathway. Aminolevulinic acid plus blue light illumination using a blue light photodynamic therapy illuminator is indicated for the treatment of minimally to moderately thick actinic keratoses of the face or scalp.
Porphobilinogen (PBG) is a pyrrole-containing intermediate in the biosynthesis of porphyrins. It is generated from aminolevulinate (ALA) by the enzyme ALA dehydratase. Porphobilinogen is then converted into hydroxymethylbilane by the enzyme porphobilinogen deaminase (also known as hydroxymethylbilane synthase). Under certain conditions, porphobilinogen can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).
Adenosine is a nucleoside that is composed of adenine and D-ribose. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. For instance, adenosine plays an important role in energy transfer as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). It also plays a role in signal transduction as cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Adenosine itself is both a neurotransmitter and potent vasodilator. When administered intravenously adenosine causes transient heart block in the AV node. Due to the effects of adenosine on AV node-dependent supraventricular tachycardia, adenosine is considered a class V antiarrhythmic agent. Overdoses of adenosine intake (as a drug) can lead to several side effects including chest pain, feeling faint, shortness of breath, and tingling of the senses. Serious side effects include a worsening dysrhythmia and low blood pressure. When present in sufficiently high levels, adenosine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of adenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase deficiency. Adenosine is a precursor to deoxyadenosine, which is a precursor to dATP. A buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide consisting of a purine base (adenine) attached to the first carbon atom of ribose (a pentose sugar). Three phosphate groups are esterified at the fifth carbon atom of the ribose. ATP is incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. ATP contributes to cellular energy charge and participates in overall energy balance, maintaining cellular homeostasis. ATP can act as an extracellular signaling molecule via interactions with specific purinergic receptors to mediate a wide variety of processes as diverse as neurotransmission, inflammation, apoptosis, and bone remodelling. Extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have also been shown to exert a variety of effects on nearly every cell type in human skin, and ATP seems to play a direct role in triggering skin inflammatory, regenerative, and fibrotic responses to mechanical injury, an indirect role in melanocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and a complex role in Langerhans cell-directed adaptive immunity. During exercise, intracellular homeostasis depends on the matching of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) supply and ATP demand. Metabolites play a useful role in communicating the extent of ATP demand to the metabolic supply pathways. Effects as different as proliferation or differentiation, chemotaxis, release of cytokines or lysosomal constituents, and generation of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species are elicited upon stimulation of blood cells with extracellular ATP. The increased concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in erythrocytes from patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) has been observed in many studies but the mechanism leading to these abnormalities still is controversial.  (A3367, A3368, A3369, A3370, A3371).
Deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP) is a purine nucleoside triphosphate used in cells for DNA synthesis. A nucleoside triphosphate is a molecule type that contains a nucleoside with three phosphates bound to it. dATP contains the sugar deoxyribose, a precursor to DNA synthesis whereby the two existing phosphate groups are cleaved with the remaining deoxyadenosine monophosphate being incorporated into DNA during replication. When present in sufficiently high levels, dATP can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of deoxyadenosine triphosphate are associated with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, an inborn error of metabolism. ADA deficiency damages the immune system and causes severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). People with SCID lack virtually all immune protection from bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They are prone to repeated and persistent infections that can be very serious or life-threatening. These infections are often caused by "opportunistic" organisms that ordinarily do not cause illness in people with a normal immune system. The main symptoms of ADA deficiency are pneumonia, chronic diarrhea, and widespread skin rashes. The mechanism by which dATP functions as an immunotoxin is as follows: a buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges.
Adenine is a purine base. Adenine is found in both DNA and RNA. Adenine is a fundamental component of adenine nucleotides. Adenine forms adenosine, a nucleoside, when attached to ribose, and deoxyadenosine when attached to deoxyribose; it forms adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a nucleotide, when three phosphate groups are added to adenosine. Adenosine triphosphate is used in cellular metabolism as one of the basic methods of transferring chemical energy between chemical reactions. Purine inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) are serious hereditary disorders, which should be suspected in any case of neonatal fitting, failure to thrive, recurrent infections, neurological deficit, renal disease, self-mutilation and other manifestations. Investigation usually starts with uric acid (UA) determination in urine and plasma. (OMIM 300322, 229600, 603027, 232400, 232600, 232800, 201450, 220150, 232200, 162000, 164050, 278300).  (A3372, A3373).
It serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of hydrocortisone and gonadal steroid hormones. It is derived from progesterone via 17-hydroxylase, a P450c17 enzyme, or from 17-hydroxypregnenolone via 3&#946;-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/&#916;5-4 isomerase. 17-Hydroxyprogesterone is a natural progestin and in pregnancy increases in the third trimester primarily due to fetal adrenal production. This hormone is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and to some degree in the gonads, specifically the corpus luteum of the ovary. Normal levels are 3-90 ng/dl in children, and in women, 15-70 ng/dl prior to ovulation, and 35-290 ng/dl during the luteal phase. Measurements of levels of 17-hydroxyprogesterone are useful in the evaluation of patients with suspected congenital adrenal hyperplasia as the typical enzymes that are defective, namely 21-hydroxylase and 11&#946;-hydroxylase, lead to a build-up of 17OHP. In contrast, the rare patient with 17&#945;-hydroxylase deficiency will have very low or undetectable levels of 17OHP. 17OHP levels can also be used to measure contribution of progestational activity of the corpus luteum during pregnancy as progesterone but not 17OHP is also contributed by the placenta.
18-Hydroxycorticosterone is a corticosteroid and a derivative of corticosterone. If it is present in sufficiently high concentrations, it can lead to serious electrolyte imbalances (an electrolyte toxin). 18-Hydroxycorticosterone serves as an intermediate in the synthesis of aldosterone by the enzyme aldosterone synthase in the zona glomerulosa. Chronically high levels of 18-hydroxycorticosterone are associated with at least three inborn errors of metabolism including adrenal hyperplasia type V, corticosterone methyl oxidase I deficiency, and corticosterone methyl oxidase II deficiency. Each of these conditions is characterized by excessive amounts of sodium being released in the urine (salt wasting), along with insufficient release of potassium in the urine, usually beginning in the first few weeks of life. This imbalance leads to low levels of sodium and high levels of potassium in the blood (hyponatremia and hyperkalemia, respectively). Individuals with corticosterone methyloxidase deficiency can also have high levels of acid in the blood (metabolic acidosis). Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). The hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and metabolic acidosis associated with corticosterone methyloxidase deficiency can cause nausea, vomiting, dehydration, low blood pressure, extreme tiredness (fatigue), and muscle weakness.
Hexacosanoic acid, or cerotic acid, is a 26-carbon long-chain saturated fatty acid with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)24COOH. It is most commonly found in beeswax and carnauba wax, and is a white crystalline solid. (Wikipedia) X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) is a peroxisomal disorder biochemically characterized by the accumulation of very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA), particularly hexacosanoic acid (C(26:0)) and tetracosanoic acid (C(24:0)), in tissues and biological fluids. (A3378)
Creatine is an amino acid that occurs in vertebrate tissues and in urine. In muscle tissue, creatine generally occurs as phosphocreatine. Creatine is excreted as creatinine in the urine. Creatine functions as part of the cell's energy shuttle. The high energy phosphate group of ATP is transferred to creatine to form phosphocreatine in the following reaction: Cr + ATP <-> PCr + ADP. This reaction is reversibly catalyzed by creatine kinase. In the human body creatine is synthesized mainly in the liver by the use of parts from three different amino acids - arginine, glycine, and methionine. 95% of it is later stored in the skeletal muscles, with the rest in the brain, heart, testes.
Arginosuccinic acid is a basic amino acid. Some cells synthesize it from citrulline, aspartic acid and use it as a precursor for arginine in the urea cycle or Citrulline-NO cycle. The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is argininosuccinate synthetase. Argininosuccinic acid is a precursor to fumarate in the citric acid cycle via argininosuccinate lyase. Defects in the arginosuccinate lyase enzyme can lead to arginosuccinate lyase deficiency. Argininosuccinate (ASA) lyase deficiency results in defective cleavage of ASA. This leads to an accumulation of ASA in cells and an excessive excretion of ASA in urine (arginosuccinic aciduria). In virtually all respects, this disorder shares the characteristics of other urea cycle defects. The most important characteristic of ASA lyase deficiency is its propensity to cause hyperammonemia in affected individuals. ASA in affected individuals is excreted by the kidney at a rate practically equivalent to the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Whether ASA itself causes a degree of toxicity due to hepatocellular accumulation is unknown; such an effect could help explain hyperammonemia development in affected individuals. Regardless, the name of the disease is derived from the rapid clearance of ASA in urine, although elevated levels of ASA can be found in plasma. ASA lyase deficiency is associated with high mortality and morbidity rates. Symptoms of ASA lyase deficiency include anorexia, irritability rapid breathing, lethargy and vomiting. Extreme symptoms include coma and cerebral edema.
Citrulline is an amino acid.  It is made from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate in one of the central reactions in the urea cycle. It is also produced from arginine as a by-product of the reaction catalyzed by NOS family.  Its name is derived from citrullus, the Latin word for watermelon, from which it was first isolated.
D-Lactic acid is the end product of the enzyme Glyoxalase II ([EC:3.1.2.6] hydroxyacyl-glutathione hydrolase) which converts the intermediate substrate S-lactoyl-glutathione to reduced glutathione and D-lactate. (OMIM 138790). The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation.
Alanine is a nonessential amino acid made in the body from the conversion of the carbohydrate pyruvate or the breakdown of DNA and the dipeptides carnosine and anserine. It is highly concentrated in muscle and is one of the most important amino acids released by muscle, functioning as a major energy source. Plasma alanine is often decreased when the BCAA (Branched Chain Amino Acids) are deficient. This finding may relate to muscle metabolism. Alanine is highly concentrated in meat products and other high-protein foods like wheat germ and cottage cheese. Alanine is an important participant as well as regulator in glucose metabolism. Alanine levels parallel blood sugar levels in both diabetes and hypoglycemia, and alanine reduces both severe hypoglycemia and the ketosis of diabetes. It is an important amino acid for lymphocyte reproduction and immunity. Alanine therapy has helped dissolve kidney stones in experimental animals. Normal alanine metabolism, like that of other amino acids, is highly dependent upon enzymes that contain vitamin B6. Alanine, like GABA, taurine and glycine, is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.  It is produced from pyruvate by transamination. It is involved in sugar and acid metabolism, increases immunity, and provides energy for muscle tissue, brain, and the central nervous system.
Uroporphyrin is the porphyrin produced by oxidation of the methylene bridges in uroporphyrinogen. Uroporphyrins have four acetic acid and four propionic acid side chains attached to their pyrrole rings. The enzyme uroporphyrinogen I synthase catalyzes the formation of hydroxymethylbilane from four molecules of porphobilinogen. Uroporphyrinogen III cosynthase then catalyzes the conversion of hydroxymethylbilane into uroporphyrinogen III. Otherwise, hydroxymethylbilane cyclizes nonenzymatically to form uroporphyrinogen I. Uroporphyrinogen I and III yield their respective uroporphyrins via autooxidation or their respective coproporphyrinogens via decarboxylation. Excessive amounts of uroporphyrin I are excreted in congenital erythropoietic porphyria, and both uroporphyrin I and uroporphyrin III are excreted in porphyria cutanea tarda. Uroporphyrin I and III are the most common isomers. Under certain conditions, uroporphyrin III can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).
Coproporphyrin III is a porphyrin metabolite arising from heme synthesis. Porphyrins are pigments found in both animal and plant life. Coproporphyrin III is a tetrapyrrole dead-end product from the spontaneous oxidation of the methylene bridges of coproporphynogen, arising from heme synthesis and secreted in feces and urine. Increased levels of coproporphyrins can indicate congenital erythropoietic porphyria or sideroblastic anaemia. Porphyria is a pathological state characterised by abnormalities of porphyrin metabolism and results in the excretion of large quantities of porphyrins in the urine and in extreme sensitivity to light. A large number of factors are capable of increasing porphyrin excretion, owing to different and multiple causes and etiologies: 1) the main site of the chronic hepatic porphyria disease process concentrates on the liver, 2) a functional and morphologic liver injury is almost regularly associated with this chronic porphyria, 3) the toxic form due to occupational and environmental exposure takes mainly a subclinical course. Hepatic factors includes disturbance in coproporphyrinogen metabolism, which results from inhibition of coproporphyrinogen oxidase as well as from the rapid loss from, and diminished utilization of coproporphyrinogen in the hepatocytes, which may also explain why coproporphyrin, its autoxidation product, predominates physiologically in the urine; decreased biliary excretion of coproporphyrin leading to a compensatory urinary excretion, so that the coproporphyrin ring isomer ratio (1:III) becomes a sensitive index for impaired liver function and intrahepatic cholestasis; and disturbed activity of hepatic uroporphyrinogen decarboxylase. In itself, secondary coproporphyrinuria is not associated with porphyria symptoms of a hepatologic-gastroenterologic, neurologic, or dermatologic order, even though coproporphyrinuria can occur with such symptoms.  (A3413).
Uroporphyrin is the porphyrin produced by oxidation of the methylene bridges in uroporphyrinogen. Uroporphyrins have four acetic acid and four propionic acid side chains attached to their pyrrole rings. The enzyme uroporphyrinogen I synthase catalyzes the formation of hydroxymethylbilane from four molecules of porphobilinogen. Uroporphyrinogen III cosynthase then catalyzes the conversion of hydroxymethylbilane into uroporphyrinogen III. Otherwise, hydroxymethylbilane cyclizes nonenzymatically to form uroporphyrinogen I. Uroporphyrinogen I and III yield their respective uroporphyrins via autooxidation or their respective coproporphyrinogens via decarboxylation. Excessive amounts of uroporphyrin I are excreted in congenital erythropoietic porphyria, and both uroporphyrin I and uroporphyrin III are excreted in porphyria cutanea tarda. Uroporphyrin I and III are the most common isomers. Under certain conditions, uroporphyrin I can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).
Pyruvic acid is an intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed.) Biological Source: Intermediate in primary metabolism including fermentation processes. Present in muscle in redox equilibrium with Lactic acid. A common constituent, as a chiral cyclic acetal linked to saccharide residues, of bacterial polysaccharides. Isolated from cane sugar fermentation broth and peppermint. Constituent of Bauhinia purpurea, Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Delonix regia, Pisum sativum (pea) and Trigonella caerulea (sweet trefoil) Use/Importance: Reagent for regeneration of carbonyl compdounds from semicarbazones, phenylhydrazones and oximes.
Glyceric acid is a colourless syrupy acid, obtained from oxidation of glycerol. It is a compound that is secreted excessively in the urine by patients suffering from D-glyceric aciduria, an inborn error of metabolism, and D-glycerate anemia. Deficiency of human glycerate kinase leads to D-glycerate acidemia/D-glyceric aciduria. Symptoms of the disease include progressive neurological impairment, hypotonia, seizures, failure to thrive, and metabolic acidosis. At sufficiently high levels, glyceric acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Glyceric acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated glyceric aciduria. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and seizures.
Dihydrothymine is an intermediate breakdown product of thymine. Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase catalyzes the reduction of thymine into 5,6-dihydrothymine then dihydropyrimidinase hydrolyzes 5,6-dihydrothymine into N-carbamyl-beta-alanine. Finally, beta-ureidopropionase catalyzes the conversion of N-carbamyl-beta-alanine to beta-alanine. When present at abnormally high levels, dihydrothymine can be toxic, although the mechanism of toxicity is not clear. In particular, patients with dihydropyrimidinase deficiency exhibit highly increased concentrations of 5,6-dihydrouracil and 5,6-dihydrothymine, and moderately increased concentrations of uracil and thymine can be detected in urine. Dihydropyrimidinase deficiency is a disorder that can cause neurological and gastrointestinal problems in some affected individuals. The most common neurological abnormalities that occur are intellectual disability, seizures, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), abnormally small head size (microcephaly), and autistic behaviours that affect communication and social interaction. Gastrointestinal problems that occur in dihydropyrimidinase deficiency include backflow of acidic stomach contents into the esophagus (gastroesophageal reflux) and recurrent episodes of vomiting.
Dihydrouracil is an intermediate breakdown product of uracil. Dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DHP) catalyzes the reduction of uracil into 5,6-dihydrouracil then dihydropyrimidinase hydrolyzes 5,6-dihydrouracil into N-carbamyl-beta-alanine. Finally, beta-ureidopropionase catalyzes the conversion of N-carbamyl-beta-alanine into beta-alanine. When present at abnormally high levels, dihydrouracil can be toxic although the mechanism of toxicity is not clear. In particular, patients with dihydropyrimidinase deficiency exhibit highly increased concentrations of 5,6-dihydrouracil and 5,6-dihydrothymine, and moderately increased concentrations of uracil and thymine can be detected in urine. Dihydropyrimidinase deficiency is a disorder that can cause neurological and gastrointestinal problems in some affected individuals (OMIM: 222748).  The neurological abnormalities that occur most often in people with dihydropyrimidinase deficiency are intellectual disability, seizures, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), an abnormally small head size (microcephaly), and autistic behaviours that affect communication and social interaction. Gastrointestinal problems that occur in dihydropyrimidinase deficiency include backflow of acidic stomach contents into the esophagus (gastroesophageal reflux) and recurrent episodes of vomiting. The direct measurement of the activity of DHP in patients has been hampered by the fact that the enzyme is expressed almost exclusively in liver tissue.
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often covalently linked to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. Fructose is one of three common dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion. Fructose is found naturally in many fruits and vegetables and honey.  It is frequently derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and corn. High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which is widely used as a sweetener in beverages and foods, is a mixture of glucose and fructose. The primary reason that fructose is used commercially in foods and beverages is because of its low cost and is its high relative sweetness. It is the sweetest of all naturally occurring carbohydrates being 1.73 times as sweet as sucrose. Fructose consumption in the U.S. has more than doubled in the past 30 years. Americans' fructose intake climbed from 15 grams per day in the early 1900s to 55 grams per day in 1994.  This increase is largely due to an increase in soft drink consumption.
Galactitol or dulcitol is a sugar alcohol that is a metabolic breakdown product of galactose. Galactose is derived from lactose in food (such as dairy products). When lactose is broken down by the enzyme lactase it produces glucose and galactose. Galactitol has a slightly sweet taste. It is produced from galactose in a reaction catalyzed by aldose reductase. When present in sufficiently high levels, galactitol can act as a metabotoxin, a neurotoxin, and a hepatotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural cells and neural tissue. A hepatotoxin as a compound that disrupts or attacks liver tissue or liver cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of galactitol are associated with at least two inborn errors of metabolism, including galactosemia and galactosemia type II. Galactosemia is a rare genetic metabolic disorder that affects an individual's ability to metabolize the sugar galactose properly. Excess lactose consumption in individuals with galactose intolerance or galactosemia activates aldose reductase to produce galactitol, thus depleting NADPH and leading to lowered glutathione reductase activity. As a result, hydrogen peroxide or other free radicals accumulate causing serious oxidative damage to various cells and tissues. In individuals with galactosemia, the enzymes needed for the further metabolism of galactose (galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase) are severely diminished or missing entirely, leading to toxic levels of galactose 1-phosphate, galactitol, and galactonate. High levels of galactitol in infants are specifically associated with hepatomegaly (an enlarged liver), cirrhosis, renal failure, cataracts, vomiting, seizure, hypoglycemia, lethargy, brain damage, and ovarian failure.
Bilirubin is a bile pigment that is a degradation product of heme. In particular, bilirubin is a yellow breakdown product of normal heme catabolism. Its levels are elevated in certain diseases and it is responsible for the yellow color of bruises. Bilirubin is an excretion product, and the body does not control levels. Bilirubin levels reflect the balance between production and excretion. Thus, there is no normal level of bilirubin. Bilirubin consists of an open chain of four pyrroles (tetrapyrrole); by contrast, the heme molecule is a closed ring of four pyrroles, called porphyrin.
Glucose is a monosaccharide containing six carbon atoms and an aldehyde group and is therefore referred to as an aldohexose. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiacetal. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium and at pH 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. Glucose is a primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. In animals glucose arises from the breakdown of glycogen in a process known as glycogenolysis. Glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis.
Glycerol or glycerin is a colourless, odourless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and mostly non-toxic. It is widely used in the food industry as a sweetener and humectant and in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol is an important component of triglycerides (i.e. fats and oils) and of phospholipids. Glycerol is a three-carbon substance that forms the backbone of fatty acids in fats. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream. The glycerol component can be converted into glucose by the liver and provides energy for cellular metabolism. Normally, glycerol shows very little acute toxicity and very high oral doses or acute exposures can be tolerated. On the other hand, chronically high levels of glycerol in the blood are associated with glycerol kinase deficiency (GKD). GKD causes the condition known as hyperglycerolemia, an accumulation of glycerol in the blood and urine. There are three clinically distinct forms of GKD: infantile, juvenile, and adult. The infantile form is the most severe and is associated with vomiting, lethargy, severe developmental delay, and adrenal insufficiency. The mechanisms of glycerol toxicity in infants are not known, but it appears to shift metabolism towards chronic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated GKD. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. Patients with the adult form of GKD generally have no symptoms and are often detected fortuitously.
L-Isoleucine is one of the essential amino acids that cannot be made by the body and is known for its ability to help endurance and assist in the repair and rebuilding of muscle. This amino acid is important to body builders as it helps boost energy and helps the body recover from training.  L-Isoleucine is also classified as a branched-chain amino acid (BCAA). It helps promote muscle recovery after exercise. Isoleucine is actually broken down for energy within the muscle tissue.  It is important in hemoglobin synthesis and regulation of blood sugar and energy levels.
Leucine (abbreviated as Leu or L)[2] is a branched-chain л±-amino acid with the chemical formulaHO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH(CH3)2. Leucine is classified as a hydrophobic amino acid due to its aliphatic isobutyl side chain. It is encoded by six codons (UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, and CUG) and is a major component of the subunits in ferritin, astacin, and other 'buffer' proteins. Leucine is an essential amino acid, meaning that the human body cannot synthesize it, and it therefore must be ingested. It is important for hemoglobin formation.
Threonine is an essential amino acid in humans. It is abundant in human plasma, particularly in newborns. Severe deficiency of threonine causes neurological dysfunction and lameness in experimental animals. Threonine is an immunostimulant which promotes the growth of thymus gland. It also can probably promote cell immune defense function. This amino acid has been useful in the treatment of genetic spasticity disorders and multiple sclerosis at a dose of 1 gram daily. It is highly concentrated in meat products, cottage cheese and wheat germ. The threonine content of most of the infant formulas currently on the market is approximately 20% higher than the threonine concentration in human milk. Due to this high threonine content the plasma threonine concentrations are up to twice as high in premature infants fed these formulas than in infants fed human milk. The whey proteins which are used for infant formulas are sweet whey proteins. Sweet whey results from cheese production. Threonine catabolism in mammals appears to be due primarily (70-80%) to the activity of threonine dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.103) that oxidizes threonine to 2-amino-3-oxobutyrate, which forms glycine and acetyl CoA, whereas threonine dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.16) that catabolizes threonine into 2-oxobutyrate and ammonia, is significantly less active. Increasing the threonine plasma concentrations leads to accumulation of threonine and glycine in the brain. Such accumulation affects the neurotransmitter balance which may have consequences for the brain development during early postnatal life. Thus, excessive threonine intake during infant feeding should be avoided.  (A3450).
Tyrosine is an essential amino acid that readily passes the blood-brain barrier. Once in the brain, it is a precursor for the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine, better known as adrenalin. These neurotransmitters are an important part of the body's sympathetic nervous system, and their concentrations in the body and brain are directly dependent upon dietary tyrosine. Tyrosine is not found in large concentrations throughout the body, probably because it is rapidly metabolized. Folic acid, copper and vitamin C are cofactor nutrients of these reactions. Tyrosine is also the precursor for hormones, thyroid, catecholestrogens and the major human pigment, melanin. Tyrosine is an important amino acid in many proteins, peptides and even enkephalins, the body's natural pain reliever. Valine and other branched amino acids, and possibly tryptophan and phenylalanine may reduce tyrosine absorption. A number of genetic errors of tyrosine metabolism occur. Most common is the increased amount of tyrosine in the blood of premature infants, which is marked by decreased motor activity, lethargy and poor feeding. Infection and intellectual deficits may occur. Vitamin C supplements reverse the disease. Some adults also develop elevated tyrosine in their blood. This indicates a need for more vitamin C. More tyrosine is needed under stress, and tyrosine supplements prevent the stress-induced depletion of norepinephrine and can cure biochemical depression. However, tyrosine may not be good for psychosis. Many antipsychotic medications apparently function by inhibiting tyrosine metabolism. L-dopa, which is directly used in Parkinson's, is made from tyrosine. Tyrosine, the nutrient, can be used as an adjunct in the treatment of Parkinson's. Peripheral metabolism of tyrosine necessitates large doses of tyrosine, however, compared to L-dopa.
Calcium is essential for the normal growth and maintenance of bones and teeth, and calcium requirements must be met throughout life. Requirements are greatest during periods of growth, such as childhood, during pregnancy and when breast-feeding. Long-term calcium deficiency can lead to osteoporosis, in which the bone deteriorates and there is an increased risk of fractures. Adults need between 1,000 and 1,300 mg of calcium in their daily diet. Calcium is essential for living organisms, particularly in cell physiology, and is the most common metal in many animals. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. Calcium combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes. Calcium is an important component of a healthy diet. A deficit can affect bone and tooth formation, while overretention can cause kidney stones. Vitamin D is needed to absorb calcium. Dairy products, such as milk and cheese, are a well-known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of non-European descent, are lactose-intolerant, leaving them unable to consume dairy products. Fortunately, many other good sources of calcium exist. These include: seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame); beans; amaranth; collard greens; okra; rutabaga; broccoli; kale; and fortified products such as orange juice and soy milk. Calcium has also been found to assist in the production of lymphatic fluids. Getting too much calcium can cause constipation. It might also interfere with the body's ability to absorb iron and zinc. In adults, too much calcium from dietary supplements might increase the risk of kidney stones. Too much calcium from food sources does not increase that risk.
Xanthine is a purine base found in most body tissues and fluids, certain plants, and some urinary calculi. It is an intermediate in the degradation of adenosine monophosphate to uric acid, being formed by oxidation of hypoxanthine. The methylated xanthine compounds caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline and their derivatives are used in medicine for their bronchodilator effects. (Dorland, 28th ed.).
4-Hydroxyproline (or hydroxyproline or Hyp) is a major component of the protein collagen. Hydroxyproline is produced by hydroxylation of the amino acid proline and is, therefore, a post-translationally modified amino acid. Hydroxyproline and proline play key roles for collagen stability. In particular, they permit the sharp twisting of the collagen helix. Hydroxyproline is found in few proteins other than collagen. The only other mammalian protein which includes hydroxyproline is elastin. For this reason, hydroxyproline content has been used as an indicator to determine collagen and/or gelatin amount in tissue or biological samples.  Increased serum and urine levels of hydroxyproline have been found in Paget's disease  Hydroxyproline (Hyp) content in biological fluids is used as a parameter of collagen catabolism, especially bone resorption or tissue degradation. Bedridden and elderly individuals show significantly elevated serum levels of hydroxyproline in comparison to normal, active individuals  Elevated levels of urinary hydroxyproline are also indicative of muscle damage  Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) are also known to accelerate collagen degradation. Hydroxyproline levels increase in cases of depression and stress  (A3486, A3487, A3488, A3489).
Ketoleucine is an abnormal metabolite that arises from the incomplete breakdown of branched-chain amino acids. Ketoleucine is both a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of ketoleucine are associated with maple syrup urine disease (MSUD). MSUD is a metabolic disorder caused by a deficiency of the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKDC), leading to a buildup of the branched-chain amino acids (leucine, isoleucine, and valine) and their toxic by-products (ketoacids) in the blood and urine. The symptoms of MSUD often show in infancy and lead to severe brain damage if untreated. MSUD may also present later depending on the severity of the disease. If left untreated in older individuals, during times of metabolic crisis, symptoms of the condition include uncharacteristically inappropriate, extreme, or erratic behaviour and moods, hallucinations, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, lethargy, oscillating hypertonia and hypotonia, ataxia, seizures, hypoglycemia, ketoacidosis, opisthotonus, pancreatitis, rapid neurological decline, and coma.  In maple syrup urine disease, the brain concentration of branched-chain ketoacids can increase 10- to 20-fold. This leads to a depletion of glutamate and a consequent reduction in the concentration of brain glutamine, aspartate, alanine, and other amino acids. The result is a compromise of energy metabolism because of a failure of the malate-aspartate shuttle and a diminished rate of protein synthesis (PMID: 15930465).
Deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) is a deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) that is chemically similar to uridine triphosphate (UTP) except that it has a deoxyribose sugar instead of a ribose sugar. DNA synthesis requires the availability of deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dTTP, dATP, dGTP, dCTP), whereas RNA synthesis requires the availability of nucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) such as TTP, ATP, GTP, and UTP. The conversion of nucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) into dNTPs can only be done in the diphosphate form. Typically, an NTP has one phosphate removed to become an NDP. This is then converted into a dNDP by an enzyme called ribonucleotide reductase and followed by the re-addition of phosphate to give a dNTP. dUTP is a substrate for several enzymes, including inosine triphosphate pyrophosphatase, deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase (mitochondrial), uridine-cytidine kinase 1, nucleoside diphosphate kinase 3, nucleoside diphosphate kinase B, nucleoside diphosphate kinase 6, nucleoside diphosphate kinase (mitochondrial), nucleoside diphosphate kinase homolog 5, nucleoside diphosphate kinase A, and nucleoside diphosphate kinase 7. While UTP is routinely incorporated into RNA, dUTP is not normally incorporated into DNA. Instead, if dUTP is misincorporated into DNA, it can cause DNA damage. Therefore, dUTP can be considered as a teratogen or a mutagen. The extent of DNA damage caused by dUTP is highly dependent on the levels of the dUTP pyrophosphatase (dUTPase) and uracil-DNA glycosylase (UDG), which limits the intracellular accumulation of dUTP. Additionally, loss of viability following thymidylate synthase (TS) inhibition occurs as a consequence of the accumulation of dUTP in some cell lines and subsequent misincorporation of uracil into DNA (PMID: 11487279).
S-Sulfocysteine (SSC) is produced by reaction of inorganic sulfite and cystine by a yet unknown pathway and is a very potent NMDA-receptor agonist. Electrophysiological studies have shown that SSC displays depolarizing properties similar to glutamate. Patients affected with either Molybdenum cofactor deficiency (MOCOD, an autosomal recessive disease that leads to a combined deficiency of the enzymes sulphite oxidase, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of sulfite to inorganic sulfate, xanthine dehydrogenase and aldehyde oxidase) or isolated sulphite oxidase deficiency (ISOD, an extremely rare autosomal recessive disorder with identical clinical manifestations to MOCOD) excrete elevated levels of SSC. This rare disorder is associated with brain damage (seizures, spastic quadriplegia, and cerebral atrophy), mental retardation, dislocated ocular lenses, blindness, and excretion in the urine of abnormally large amounts of SSC, sulfite, and thiosulfate but no inorganic sulfate. (A15402, A15407).
Tyramine is a monoamine compound derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyramine is metabolized by the enzyme monoamine oxidase. In foods, it is often produced by the decarboxylation of tyrosine during fermentation or decay. Foods containing considerable amounts of tyramine include fish, chocolate, alcoholic beverages, cheese, soy sauce, sauerkraut, and processed meat. A large dietary intake of tyramine can cause an increase in systolic blood pressure of 30 mmHg or more. Tyramine acts as a neurotransmitter via a G protein-coupled receptor with high affinity for tyramine called TA1. The TA1 receptor is found in the brain as well as peripheral tissues including the kidney. An indirect sympathomimetic, Tyramine can also serve as a substrate for adrenergic uptake systems and monoamine oxidase so it prolongs the actions of adrenergic transmitters. It also provokes transmitter release from adrenergic terminals.
Protoporphyrinogen IX is an intermediate in heme biosynthesis. It is a porphyrinogen in which two pyrrole rings each have one methyl and one propionate side chain, and the other two pyrrole rings each have one methyl and one vinyl side chain. Fifteen isomers are possible but only one, type IX, occurs naturally. Protoporphyrinogen is produced by oxidative decarboxylation of coproporphyrinogen. Under certain conditions, protoporphyrinogen IX can act as a phototoxin, a neurotoxin, and a metabotoxin. A phototoxin leads to cell damage upon exposure to light. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of porphyrins are associated with porphyrias such as porphyria variegate, acute intermittent porphyria, and hereditary coproporphyria (HCP). In particular, protoporphyrinogen IX is accumulated and excreted excessively in the feces in acute intermittent porphyria, protoporphyria, and variegate porphyria. There are several types of porphyrias (most are inherited). Hepatic porphyrias are characterized by acute neurological attacks (seizures, psychosis, extreme back and abdominal pain, and an acute polyneuropathy), while the erythropoietic forms present with skin problems (usually a light-sensitive blistering rash and increased hair growth). The neurotoxicity of porphyrins may be due to their selective interactions with tubulin, which disrupt microtubule formation and cause neural malformations (PMID: 3441503).
Glyoxylic acid or oxoacetic acid is an organic compound that is both an aldehyde and a carboxylic acid. Glyoxylic acid is a liquid with a melting point of -93°C and a boiling point of 111°C. It is an intermediate of the glyoxylate cycle, which enables certain organisms to convert fatty acids into carbohydrates. The conjugate base of glyoxylic acid is known as glyoxylate (PMID: 16396466). In humans, glyoxylate is produced via two pathways: (1) through the oxidation of glycolate in peroxisomes and (2) through the catabolism of hydroxyproline in mitochondria. In the peroxisomes, glyoxylate is converted into glycine by glyoxylate aminotransferase (AGT1) or into oxalate by glycolate oxidase. In the mitochondria, glyoxylate is converted into glycine by mitochondrial glyoxylate aminotransferase AGT2 or into glycolate by glycolate reductase. A small amount of glyoxylate is converted into oxalate by cytoplasmic lactate dehydrogenase. Glyoxylic acid is found to be associated with primary hyperoxaluria I, which is an inborn error of metabolism. Under certain circumstances, glyoxylate can be a nephrotoxin and a metabotoxin. A nephrotoxin is a compound that causes damage to the kidney and kidney tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. High levels of glyoxylate are involved in the development of hyperoxaluria, a key cause of nephrolithiasis (commonly known as kidney stones). Glyoxylate is both a substrate and inductor of sulfate anion transporter-1 (SAT-1), a gene responsible for oxalate transportation, allowing it to increase SAT-1 mRNA expression, and as a result oxalate efflux from the cell. The increased oxalate release allows the buildup of calcium oxalate in the urine, and thus the eventual formation of kidney stones. As an aldehyde, glyoxylate is also highly reactive and will modify proteins to form advanced glycation products (AGEs).
Propionyl-CoA is an intermediate in the metabolism of propanoate. Propionic aciduria is caused by an autosomal recessive disorder of propionyl coenzyme A (CoA) carboxylase deficiency (EC 6.4.1.3). In propionic aciduria, propionyl CoA accumulates within the mitochondria in massive quantities; free carnitine is then esterified, creating propionyl carnitine, which is then excreted in the urine. Because the supply of carnitine in the diet and from synthesis is limited, such patients readily develop carnitine deficiency as a result of the increased loss of acylcarnitine derivatives. This condition demands supplementation of free carnitine above the normal dietary intake to continue to remove (detoxify) the accumulating organic acids. Propionyl-CoA is a substrate for Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (medium-chain specific, mitochondrial), Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase 2-like (mitochondrial), Propionyl-CoA carboxylase alpha chain (mitochondrial), Methylmalonate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (mitochondrial), Trifunctional enzyme beta subunit (mitochondrial), 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (peroxisomal), Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (long-chain specific, mitochondrial), Malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (mitochondrial), Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (cytoplasmic), 3-ketoacyl-CoA thiolase (mitochondrial) and Propionyl-CoA carboxylase beta chain (mitochondrial).  (A3505).
Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid. The anion, succinate, is a component of the citric acid cycle capable of donating electrons to the electron transfer chain. Succinic acid is created as a byproduct of the fermentation of sugar. It lends to fermented beverages such as wine and beer a common taste that is a combination of saltiness, bitterness and acidity.  Succinate is commonly used as a chemical intermediate, in medicine, the manufacture of lacquers, and to make perfume esters. It is also used in foods as a sequestrant, buffer, and a neutralizing agent. Succinate plays a role in the citric acid cycle, an energy-yielding process and is metabolized by succinate dehydrogenase to fumarate. Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) plays an important role in the mitochondria, being both part of the respiratory chain and the Krebs cycle. SDH with a covalently attached FAD prosthetic group, binds enzyme substrates (succinate and fumarate) and physiological regulators (oxaloacetate and ATP). Oxidizing succinate links SDH to the fast-cycling Krebs cycle portion where it participates in the breakdown of acetyl-CoA throughout the whole Krebs cycle. Succinate can readily be imported into the mitochondrial matrix by the n-butylmalonate- (or phenylsuccinate-) sensitive dicarboxylate carrier in exchange with inorganic phosphate or another organic acid, e.g. malate. (A3509) Mutations in the four genes encoding the subunits of succinate dehydrogenase are associated with a wide spectrum of clinical presentations (i.e.: Huntington's disease. (A3510).  Succinate also acts as an oncometabolite.  Succinate inhibits 2-oxoglutarate-dependent histone and DNA demethylase enzymes, resulting in epigenetic silencing that affects neuroendocrine differentiation.
Phytanic acid (or 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl hexadecanoic acid) is a branched chain fatty acid that humans can obtain through the consumption of dairy products, ruminant animal fats, and certain fish. It is primarily formed by bacterial degradation of chlorophyll in the intestinal tract of ruminants. Unlike most fatty acids, phytanic acid cannot be metabolized by beta-oxidation (because of a methyl group in the beta position). Instead, it undergoes alpha-oxidation in the peroxisome, where it is converted into pristanic acid by the removal of one carbon. Pristanic acid can undergo several rounds of beta-oxidation in the peroxisome to form medium chain fatty acids that can be converted to carbon dioxide and water in mitochondria. Refsum disease, an autosomal recessive neurological disorder caused by mutations in the PHYH gene, is characterized by having impaired alpha-oxidation activity. Individuals with Refsum disease accumulate large stores of phytanic acid in their blood and tissues. This frequently leads to peripheral polyneuropathy, cerebellar ataxia, retinitis pigmentosa, anosmia, and hearing loss.  Therefore, chronically high levels of phytanic acid can be neurotoxic. Phytanic acid’s neurotoxicity appears to lie in its ability to initiate astrocyte/neural cell death by activating the mitochondrial route of apoptosis. In particular, phytanic acid can induce substantial generation of reactive oxygen species in isolated mitochondria as well as in intact cells and it induces the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria.
Physiologic methyl radical donor involved in enzymatic transmethylation reactions and present in all living organisms. It possesses anti-inflammatory activity and has been used in treatment of chronic liver disease. (From Merck, 11th ed).
S-Adenosylmethionine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a physiologic methyl radical donor involved in enzymatic transmethylation reactions and present in all living organisms. It possesses anti-inflammatory activity and has been used in treatment of chronic liver disease. (From Merck, 11th ed)S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is a natural substance present in the cells of the body. It is a direct metabolite of the essential amino acid L-methionine. SAMe plays a crucial biochemical role in the body by donating a one-carbon methyl group in a process called transmethylation. SAMe, formed from the reaction of L-methionine and adenosine triphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, is the methyl-group donor in the biosynthesis of both DNA and RNA nucleic acids, phospholipids, proteins, epinephrine, melatonin, creatine and other molecules.
Sarcosine is the N-methyl derivative of glycine. Sarcosine is metabolized to glycine by the enzyme sarcosine dehydrogenase, while glycine-N-methyl transferase generates sarcosine from glycine. Sarcosine is a natural amino acid found in muscles and other body tissues. In the laboratory it may be synthesized from chloroacetic acid and methylamine. Sarcosine is naturally found in the metabolism of choline to glycine. Sarcosine is sweet to the taste and dissolves in water. It is used in manufacturing biodegradable surfactants and toothpastes as well as in other applications. Sarcosine is ubiquitous in biological materials and is present in such foods as egg yolks, turkey, ham, vegetables, legumes, etc. Sarcosine is formed from dietary intake of choline and from the metabolism of methionine, and is rapidly degraded to glycine. Sarcosine has no known toxicity, as evidenced by the lack of phenotypic manifestations of sarcosinemia, an inborn error of sarcosine metabolism. Sarcosinemia can result from severe folate deficiency because of the folate requirement for the conversion of sarcosine to glycine (Wikipedia). Sarcosine has recently been identified as a biomarker for invasive prostate cancer. It was found to be greatly increased during prostate cancer progression to metastasis and could be detected in urine. Sarcosine levels were also increased in invasive prostate cancer cell lines relative to benign prostate epithelial cells (A3519).
Chitin is one of the main components in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods (such as crustaceans) as well as fish and frogs. It is a polysaccharide that is constructed from units of acetylglucosamine (more completely, N-acetyl-D-glucose-2-amine). These are linked together in beta-1,4 fashion (in a similar manner to the glucose units which form cellulose). In effect, chitin may be described as cellulose with one hydroxyl group on each monomer replaced by an acetylamine group. This allows for increased hydrogen bonding between adjacent polymers, giving the polymer increased strength. Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world (after cellulose). Chitinases break down chitin and are a part of the defence mechanism of mammals against chitin-containing parasites in lower life forms. Under certain circumstances, chitin can act as an allergen. Research using murine models has shown that chitin is a size-dependent microbial-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) that can induce an immunological response via pattern recognition receptors. Medium-sized chitin micro-particles (CMPs) have been shown to induce inflammation, while small-sized CMPs reduce inflammation. Additionally, mammalian chitinases may play a key role in mediating the T-helper 2 cell-driven inflammatory response that is commonly associated with asthma. The high prevalence of asthma among people working with chitinous substances, such as crabs and fungi, suggests that chitin might be an allergen playing a significant role in the development of asthma.
Bensulfuron-methyl is a selective pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicide that inhibits the formation of acetolactate synthase (ALS inhibitor). Bensulfuron methyl is selective acting, through foliar and root uptake, by inhibiting biosynthesis of the essential amino acids valine and isoleucine. It stops cell division by inhibition of the acetolactate synthase enzyme. It could decrease the chlorophyll content and inhibit the growth of plant.
Bentazon is a chemical manufactured by BASF Chemicals for use in herbicides. It is categorized under the thiadiazine group of chemicals. Sodium bentazon is available commercially and appears slightly brown in colour. Bentazon has been classified by the EPA as a Group E chemical, because it is believed to be non-carcinogenic to humans (as based on testing conducted on animals). However, there are no studies or experiments that can determine toxic and/or carcinogenic effects of bentazon on humans.
Butralin is a dinitroaniline herbicide used as a plant growth regulator on flue-cured and air-cured tobacco. In studies using laboratory animals, butralin generally has been shown to be of low acute toxicity. It has been placed in Toxicity Category III for effects via the oral route of exposure and eye irritation, and Toxicity Category IV for the dermal and inhalation routes. The carcinogenicity classification for butralin has been not determined.
Butylate is one of the pesticide compounds considered by the US EPA to have the greatest potential for leaching into groundwater (9). Butylate is only slightly soluble in water (46 micrograms/ml). It degrades fairly rapidly with a soil half life of 3 to 10 weeks in moist soils under aerobic conditions. The major routes of exposure to butylate are through the skin and by inhalation. Butylate is a thiocarbamate, a class of chemicals known for their tendency to irritate the skin and the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract. It may cause symptoms of scratchy throat, sneezing, and coughing when large amounts of dusts or spray are inhaled (4,7). Slight eye irritation can be caused by butylate, potentially leading to permanent eye damage [7,22]. Skin irritation was observed in rabbits topically exposed to 2000 mg of technical butylate (85.71% pure) for 24 hours.
Captafol belongs to the family of Isoindoles and Derivatives. These are polycyclic compounds containing an isoindole moiety, which is structurally characterized by a cyclohexadiene fused to a pyrrole ring. It is a nonsystemic foliar agricultural fungicide, especially for potatoes.
Carboxin is a systemic fungicide used to control seed and seedling diseases (smut, rot, blight) on barley, beans, canola, corn, cotton, oats, onions, peanuts, rice, rye, safflower, sorghum, soybeans, triticale, and wheat. Carboxin has been shown to have low acute toxicity. Toxicity Categories, which range from I (most toxic) to IV (least toxic), were III for the oral route of exposure, IV for inhalation, and III for dermal. Carboxin is a slight eye irritant (Toxicity Category III), is not a skin irritant (Toxicity Category IV), and is negative for dermal sensitization. The mechanism of toxicity for carboxin has not been fully investigated; however the primary target organs appear to be the liver and kidney. In carcinogenicity studies in rats and mice, carboxin did not demonstrate any significant evidence of carcinogenic potential.
Chlorethoxyfos is an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used as an insecticide. Chlorethoxyfos can cause cholinesterase inhibition in humans; that is, it can overstimulate the nervous system causing nausea, dizziness, confusion, and at very high exposures (e.g, accidents or major spills), respiratory paralysis and death.
Chlorpyrifos oxon examines the risk of acute toxicity in soil microbes by comparing data on environmental concentrations of these pesticides to toxic concentrations. In animals, chlorpyrifos transforms to chlorpyrifos-oxon, which is about 3000 times as potent against the nervous system as chlorpyrifos itself.
Clodinafop-propargyl is used as a herbicide for weed control in wheat.
Clomazone, a white solid compound, is an agricultural herbicide, and has been the active ingredient of products named. The molecule consists of a 2-chlorobenzyl group bound to a N-O heterocycle called Isoxazole.
Clopyralid is a selective herbicide used for control of broadleaf weeds, especially thistles and clovers. Clopyralid is in the picolinic acid family of herbicides, which also includes aminopyralid, picloram, triclopyr, and several less common herbicides. For control of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense, a noxious, perennial weed, clopyralid is one of the few effective herbicides available. It is particularly damaging to peas, tomatoes and sunflowers and can render potatoes, lettuce and spinach inedible. It does not affect members of the family Poaceae (grasses).
Coumaphos is a nonvolatile, fat-soluble phosphorothioate with ectoparasiticide properties: it kills insects and mites. It is well known by a variety of brand names as a dip or wash, used on farm and domestic animals to control ticks, mites, flies and fleas.
Cyazofamid is a fungicide used mainly for controlling Oomycete and Plasmodiophora diseases on potatoes and tomatoes. Its mode of action is through preventing foliar and soil action with some residual activity and Respiration inhibitor effects. It has a low aqueous solubility, is unlikely to leach to groundwater and is non-volatile. It is not persistent in soils or aquatic systems. Whilst it has a low mammalian toxicity there is some concern regarding its potential for bioaccumulation. It is a skin and eye irritant. It is moderately toxic to birds, most aquatic organisms, honeybees and earthworms.
Cyclanilide is a plant growth regulator, cotton harvest aid, and fungicide that functions by interacting with auxin-regulated processes. Cyclanilide is commonly used on cotton plants to either suppress vegetative growth or accelerate senescence. Cyclanilide is also used as a bioregulator of deciduous fruit trees.
Cyproconazole formula 360 SL is a water-based wood preservative that prevents decay from fungi in above-ground applications. It is not intended to protect wood that is in contact with the ground. Where there is the potential for insect attack, a registered insecticide should also be used.
Ectoparasiticide. Insect growth regulator. Specific activity against dipterous larvae. Cyromazine is a fda approved for use in livestock. Cyromazine belongs to the family of Aminotriazines. These are organic compounds containing an amino group attached to a triazine ring.
Diaxozon is a toxic metabolic product of the insecticide Diazinon. Diazinon is a nonsystemic organophosphate insecticide (or “pro-insecticide” formerly used to control cockroaches, silverfish, ants, and fleas in residential, non-food buildings. Diazinon was heavily used during the 1970s and early 1980s for general-purpose gardening use and indoor pest control. A bait form was used to control scavenger wasps in the western U.S. Diazinon is used in flea collars for domestic pets in Australia and New Zealand. Residential uses of diazinon were outlawed in the U.S. in 2004 but it is still approved for agricultural uses. When Diazinon enters the body, it is oxidatively degenerated to diaxozon, an organophosphate compound that is much more toxic than diazinon.  Diaxozon is a potent inhibitor of AChE (acetylcholine esterase).
Dimethomorph is a fungicide effective against Oomycetes in vines, tomatoes and other crops with an systemic affect and good protective activity. It is also a lipid synthesis inhibitor.
Diniconazole is a conazole fungicide used to control a range of diseases including mildew, bunts and smuts systemically with curative and protective action. It also inhibits the demethylation of steroids distrupting ergosterol biosynthesis.
Diphenylamine is found in coriander. Diphenylamine is used for control of superficial scald in stored apples Diphenylamine is the organic compound with the formula (C6H5)2NH. It is a colourless solid, but samples are often yellow due to oxidized impurities. It is a weak base, with a KB of 10 14. With strong acids, it forms the water soluble salt. Diphenylamine belongs to the family of Aromatic Homomonocyclic Compounds. These are aromatic compounds containig only one ring, which is homocyclic.
Diquat dibromide is a non-selective contact herbicide, algicide, desiccant, and defoliant that produces desiccation and defoliation most often available as the dibromide, diquat dibromide.
Dithiopyr is a chemical used as a pre-emergent herbicide used to prevent crabgrass seeds from sprouting in the spring. Dithiopyr may alter microtubule polymerization and stability by interacting with microtubule associated proteins and/or microtubule organizing centers rather than interaction directly with tubulin.
Diuron, also known as DCMU (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), is an herbicide in the urea chemical family that inhibits photosynthesis. It was introduced by Bayer in 1954 under the trade name of Diuron. DCMU is a very specific and sensitive inhibitor of photosynthesis, the process by which plants use light, water, and carbon di-oxide from the atmosphere to form plant sugars and cellulose. Diuron blocks electron transport at a critical point in this process. It blocks the plastoquinone binding site of photosystem II, disallowing the electron flow from where it is generated, in photosystem II, to plastoquinone. This interrupts the photosynthetic electron transport chain in photosynthesis and thus reduces the ability of the plant to turn light energy into chemical energy (ATP and reductant potential).
Ethametsulfuron-methyl is a selective herbicide for the control of wild mustard, stinkweed and other broad-leaved weeds especially in canola. It is moderately soluble in water, non-volatile and, based on its chemical properties, presents a high risk of leaching to groundwater. It is relatively persistent in both soil and aqueous systems. It has a low mammalian toxicity but may bio-accumulate. It has a low toxicity to birds and most aquatic species, the exception being aquatic plants including algae. It is moderately toxic to honeybees
Ethofumesate is a pre- and post-emergence herbicide for grasses and broad-leaved weed control in various crops.
Ethylenethiourea is an organosulfur compound. It is an example of an N-substituted thiourea. This compound is be synthesized by treating ethylenediamine with carbon disulfide.
Famoxadone is a oxazolidinedione fungicide to protect agricultural products against various fungal diseases including downy mildew and blights on fruiting vegetables, tomatoes, potatoes, curcurbits, lettuce and grapes. It is used in combination with cymoxanil. It has a low aqueous solubility, low risk of leaching to groundwater and is non-volatile. It is not persistent in soil or water. Whilst it has a low mammalian toxicity there is a slight concern regarding its ability to bioaccumulate. It is considered to be a neurotoxicant and is a known eye and skin irritant. It is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates and moderately toxic to other aquatic organisms, earthworms and honeybees.
Fenarimol, sold under the tradenames Bloc, Rimidin and Rubigan, is a fungicide which acts against rusts, blackspot and mildew fungi. It is used on ornamental plants, trees, lawns, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, cucumbers and melons. It is mainly used to control powdery mildew. It works by inhibiting the fungus's biosynthesis of important steroid molecules.
Fenbuconazole is a triazole fungicide intended for use as an agricultural and horticultural fungicide spray for the control of leaf spot, yellow and brown rust, powdery mildew and net blotch on wheat and barley and apple scab, pear scab and apple powdery mildew on apples and pears. It is a systemic protectant and curative which acts by inhibiting sterol biosynthesis in fungi. Fenbuconazole is rapidly absorbed and eliminated, mainly in the faeces through significant biliary excretion; there was no evidence of significant retention in tissues. Fenbuconazole was of low acute toxicity when administered orally (LD50 > 2000 mg/kg bw), dermally (LD50 > 5000 mg/kg bw), or by inhalation (LC50 > 2.1 mg/litre air). It was not irritating to the skin or eyes.
ACCLAIM (organic nitrate combined with L-arginine), is an oral proprietary nitrate therapeutic shown to induce coronary vasodilation while overcoming the significant problem of drug tolerance. ACCLAIM treat chronic angina, the chest pain that occurs from inadequate blood flow to the coronary arteries around the heart.
Fludioxonil is a fungicide seed treatment for control of a range of diseases including Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Alternaria. It has a non-systemic action with long residual activity. It also inhibits transport-associated phosphorylation of glucose, reducing mycelial growth.
Fludioxonil is used to control axillary bud (sucker) growth after the floral portion of tobacco plants have been topped. Its mode of action is through local systemic effect, contact action, and phytotoxic.
Fluometuron is a soil applied herbicide used to control annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds. In the United States it was approved for use on cotton and sugarcane crops in 1974, but since 1986 is only approved for use on cotton. Its mode of action is selective and inhibits photosynthesis.
Fluoxastrobin is a part of the strobilurins, a group of chemical compounds used in agriculture as leaf-systemic broad-spectrum fungicides for disease control of potatoes and a wide range of vegetables, cereal and food crops. They are part of the larger group of QoI inhibitors, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.
Forchlorfenuron is a diphenylurea-derivative cytokinin growth stimulating substance used as plant growth regulator (PGR) to enhance fruit set, size and increase yields. It is absorbed by most plant parts and acts synergistically with natural auxins to promote cell division and growth. It has been approved for use on kiwi fruit and grapes in the USA, and it has been associated with exploding watermelons in China. Forchlorfenuronis is commonly used in horticulture to stimulate the growth of kiwi fruit and grapes.
Hexaconazole is a systemic conazole (imidazole) fungicide used for the control of many seed-borne and soil-borne diseases and fungi particularly Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. It is commonly used in the control of apple, coffee and peanut diseases. It has a broad spectrum of action, being systemic with protective and curative action. It is known to disrupt membrane function.
Hexythiazox is an acaricide used for the control of eggs and larvae of many phytophagous mites and functions as a mite growth regulator. It is also considered as a thiazolidine based acaricide that has long-lasting effects against many kinds of mites and is applied at any stage of the plant growth from budding to fruiting. Its mode of action is non-systemic with contact and stomach action.
Imazapyr is a non-selective herbicide for non-crop land applications which is particularly effective on hard-to-control perennial grasses. Its mode of action is non-selective and absorbed by foliage and rapidly translocated. Imazapyr is absorbed by the leaves and roots, and moves rapidly through the plant. It accumulates in the meristem region (active growth region) of the plant. In plants, imazapyr disrupts protein synthesis and interferes with cell growth and DNA synthesis. It controls vegetation by interfering with an enzyme pathway. It inhibits acetolactate synthase. It is used for the control of a broad range of weeds including terrestrial annual and perennial grasses and broadleaved herbs, woody species, and riparian and emergent aquatic species. It is used to eliminate Lithocarpus densiflorus (Tan Oak) and Arbutus menziesii (Pacific Madrone). Additionally, imazapyr is used to control annual and perennial grass and broadleaved weeds, brush, vines and many deciduous trees.
Isazofos is an obsolete insecticide and nematicide once used mainly to control soil insects on turf and some crops. It functions as an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor.
Linuron is an herbicide for the pre- and post-emergence control of annual grass and broad-leaved weeds using selective and systemic action with contact and residual action. It is known to inhibit photosynthesis (photosystem II).
Malaoxon is a metabolite of malathion. Malaoxon is a chemical compound with the formula C10H19O7PS. More specifically, it is a phosphorothioate. It is a breakdown product of, and more toxic than, malathion.
Maneb is a foliate fungicide and is a polymeric complex of manganese with the ethylene bis(dithiocarbamate) anionic ligand to control a wide range of diseases including blight, leaf spot, rust, downy mildew and scab. Its mode of action is non-specific with protective action.
Novaluron is a chemical with pesticide properties, belonging to the class of new insect growth regulators used to control a range of pests including Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera. It is a chitin synthesis inhibitor, with stomach action and some contact activity. In the United States, the compound has been used on food crops, including apples, potatoes, brassicas, ornamentals and cotton. The US Environmental Protection Agency and the Canadian Pest Management Regulatory Agency consider novaluron to pose low risk to the environment and non-target organisms, and value it an important option for integrated pest management that should decrease reliance on organophosphorus, carbamate and pyrethroid insecticides.
Oryzalin is a pre-emergence surface-applied herbicide. It acts through the disruption (depolymerization) of microtubules, thus blocking anisotropic growth of plant cells. It is used for control of annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds in fruit trees, nut trees, vineyards, turfs and around ornamentals by selectively affecting physiological growth process. It can also be used to induce ploidity as an alternative to colchicine. It has a low aqueous solubility, is not volatile and, based on its chemical properties, is not expected to leach to groundwater. However, groundwater monitoring programmes have identified it as a pollutant. It generally tends not to be persistent in soil or water systems. It has a low mammalian toxicity and is a potential carcinogen. It is moderately toxic to birds, most aquatic organisms, honeybees and earthworms.
Picloram is a persistent systemic herbicide used for general woody plant control and a broad-leaved weeds on non-crop and utility areas. It also controls a wide range of broad-leaved weeds, but most grasses are resistant. A chlorinated derivative of picolinic acid, picloram is in the pyridine family of herbicides. It is systemically absorbed by roots and leaves and translocated.
Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is an organic compound used as a component of pesticide formulations. It is a waxy white solid. It is a synergist. That is, despite having no pesticidal activity of its own, it enhances the potency of certain pesticides such as especially for carbamates, pyrethrins, pyrethroids, and rotenone. It is a semisynthetic derivative of safrole.
Pirimiphos-methyl is an organophosphate and fumigant insecticide with pirimiphos-methyl and no longer in production. It is used to control a wide range of insects and mites in stores, animal houses, domestic and industrial premisies. It is considered to be an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor with contact and respiratory action. This is one of several compounds used for vector control of Triatoma.
Prallethrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. Prallethrin 1.6% w/w liquid vaporizer is a repellent insecticide which is generally used for the control of mosquitoes in the household. It is also the primary insecticide in certain products for killing wasps and hornets, including their nests. Its mode of action is through contact, with rapid knock down effect. It acts on the insects nervous system.
Prodiamine is used to control annual grasses and broad-leaved weeds in ornamentals, hardwood crops, turf and on non-cropped land. It is selective and acts via inhibition of microtubule formation, disrupting cell division and growth.
Profenofos is an insecticide used on a wide variety of crops to control many pests but mainly Lepidoptera and mites. It is non-systemic with contact and stomach action, and an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor. It is a broad-spectrum organophosphorous pesticide that is used widely in cotton fields for insect control. It is a pale yellow liquid with garlic-like odor and corrosive. Organophosphates are susceptible to formation of highly toxic and flammable phosphine gas in the presence of strong reducing agents such as hydrides. Partial oxidation by oxidizing agents may result in the release of toxic phosphorus oxides.
Propyzamide is a residual herbicide for use in a wide range of crops to control annual and perennial grasses and some broad-leaved weeds. It is selective and systemically absorbed by roots and translocated into the plant.
Pyraflufen-ethyl is a herbicide used to control broad-leaved weeds and grasses in crops being selective with contact action.
Pyrimethanil is a fungicide used on grape vines.
Quinoxyfen is a fungicide used mainly to control Erysiphe graminis - powdery mildew in cereals. It functions systemically with protective properties, translocates and inhibits appressoria development stopping infections.
Quintozene, also known as pentachloronitrobenzene, is a registered fungicide formally derived from nitrobenzene used as soil fungicide on lawns and ornamental crops, as a seed treatment of field crops and vegetables (e.g., barley, corn, cotton, oats, rice, and wheat), and as a slime inhibitor in industrial waters. It is also used to prevent the formation of slime in industrial waters. It is either an off-white or yellow solid, depending on its purity, with a musty odor. Residual amounts of the compound and its metabolites can be found in crops. The degradation products, PCA and PCTA have been found in farming soils and in river sediments. Its mode of action is through contact and interferes with mitotic division.
Rimsulfuron is a herbicide for annual grass and annual broad-leaved weed control in maize, potatoes and other crops. It is selective, systemic, and absorbed through foliage and roots and translocated into the plant. It is an acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitor.
Spirodiclofen is a foliar applied acaricide active against a range of mites on fruit and nuts with selective, non-systemic action and disruption of mite development.
TCMTB is a wood preservative, marine biocide, contact fungicide, and as a preservative in paint.
Terbacil is a herbicide for control of annual grasses, broad-leaved weeds and some perennial weeds that is used on a range of crops including top fruit, lucerne and some herbs. Its mode of action is selective and absorbed mainly through the roots.
Thidiazuron is an herbicide and defoliant plant growth regulator used particularly in cotton crops. It is absorbed by leaves.
Thiram is an ectoparasiticide. It is used to prevent fungal diseases in seed and crops. It is also used as an animal repellent to protect fruit trees and ornamentals from damage by rabbits, rodents and deer. It is effective against Stem gall of coriander, damping off, smut of millet, neck rot of onion, etc. Thiram has been used in the treatment of human scabies, as a sun screen and as a bactericide applied directly to the skin or incorporated into soap.
Triadimefon is a fungicide used to control powdery mildew, rusts, and other infections in many crops. It is also a pesticide transformation product. Its mode of action is systemic with protective, curative and eradicant action. It disrupts membrane function. As a seed treatment, it is used on barley, corn, cotton, oats, rye, sorghum, and wheat. In fruit it is used on pineapple and banana. Non-food uses include pine seedlings, Christmas trees, turf, ornamental plants, and landscaping.
Triadimenol is a fungicide for cereals, beet and brassicas used to control a range of diseases including powdery mildew, rusts, bunts and smuts. Its mode of action is selective with curative, protective and eradicant action. It disrupts membrane function.
Triclopyr is a systemic, foliar herbicide in the pyridine group for perennial broad-leaved and woody weed control on uncultivated areas, grassland, plantations and rice fields. It is used to control broadleaf weeds while leaving grasses and conifers unaffected. It is selective, systemic, and absorbed through roots and foliage. It is a synthetic auxin.
Trifloxystrobin is a foliar applied fungicide for cereals which is particularly active against Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes and Oomycetes. It has a broad spectrum of action with preventative and curative action. It is a respiration inhibitor (QoL fungicide).
Triflumizole is a conazole fungicide used to control powdery mildew, scab and other diseases on top fruit, grapes and other crops. Its mode of action is systemic with protective and curative action. It is an inhibitor of chitin biosynthesis.
Trifluralin is a commonly used pre-emergence soil-incorporated herbicide. With about 14 million pounds used in the United States in 2001, it is one of the most widely used herbicides. Trifluralin is generally applied to the soil to provide control of a variety of annual grass and broadleaf weed species. It inhibits root development by interrupting mitosis, and thus can control weeds as they germinate. Its mode of action is selective and inhibits mitosis and cell division.
Triticonazole is a seed treatment fungicide for the control of common bunt, loose smut and covered smut on barley, oats and wheat by inhibiting sterol demethylation.
Zoxamine is a fungicide used for the control of various fungal inflections including blight in potatoes and tomatoes. It has a rainfast preventative action with residual properties and acts by inhibiting nuclear division.
Histamine H1 antagonist with pronounced sedative properties. It is used in allergies and as an antitussive, antiemetic, and hypnotic. Doxylamine has also been administered in veterinary applications and was formerly used in parkinsonism. [PubChem]
Eszopiclone, marketed by Sepracor under the brand-name Lunesta, is a nonbenzodiazepine hypnotic agent (viz., a sedative) used as a treatment for insomnia. Eszopiclone is the active stereoisomer of zopiclone, and belongs to the class of drugs known as cyclopyrrones.
Its main selling point is that it is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for long-term use, unlike almost all other hypnotic sedatives, which are approved only for the relief of short-term (6-8 weeks) insomnia.
Carbinoxamine is a first generation antihistamine that competes with free histamine for binding at HA-receptor sites. This antagonizes the effects of histamine on HA-receptors, leading to a reduction of the negative symptoms brought on by histamine HA-receptor binding. The product label for carbinoxamine as an over the counter cough and cold medicine is being modified to state "do not use" in children under 4 years of age in order to prevent and reduce misuse, as many unapproved carbinoxamine-containing preparations contained inappropriate labeling, which promoted unapproved uses (including management of congestion, cough, the common cold, and the use in children under 2 years of age), which can potentially cause serious health risks.
Histamine H1 antagonist used in treatment of allergies, rhinitis, and urticaria. [PubChem]
An alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonist that may also enhance release of norepinephrine. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including asthma, heart failure, rhinitis, and urinary incontinence, and for its central nervous system stimulatory effects in the treatment of narcolepsy and depression. It has become less extensively used with the advent of more selective agonists. [PubChem]
An expectorant that also has some muscle relaxing action. It is used in many cough preparations. [PubChem]
Desloratadine is a second generation, tricyclic antihistamine that which has a selective and peripheral H1-antagonist action. It is the active descarboethoxy metabolite of loratidine (a second generation histamine). Desloratidine has a long-lasting effect and does not cause drowsiness because it does not readily enter the central nervous system.
Azelastine, a phthalazine derivative, is an antihistamine and mast cell stabilizer available as a nasal spray for hay fever and as eye drops for allergic conjunctivitis. Azelastine is also available as a combination product of azelastine hydrochloride and fluticasone propionate called Dymista&#174;. Dymista&#174; is indicated in patient over 12 years old for symptomatic relief of seasonal allergic rhinitis.
A phenothiazine derivative with histamine H1-blocking, antimuscarinic, and sedative properties. It is used as an antiallergic, in pruritus, for motion sickness and sedation, and also in animals. [PubChem]
A barbiturate with hypnotic and sedative properties (but not antianxiety). Adverse effects are mainly a consequence of dose-related CNS depression and the risk of dependence with continued use is high. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p565)
A narcotic analgesic that may be habit-forming. It is a controlled substance (opium derivative) listed in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21 Parts 329.1, 1308.11 (1987). Sale is forbidden in the United States by Federal statute. (Merck Index, 11th ed) Internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell heroin in the United States and the UK. However, under the name diamorphine, heroin is a legal prescription drug in the United Kingdom.
Dexmethylphenidate is the dextrorotary form of methylphenidate. It is a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) and thus a psychostimulant. It is used for treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Clobazam belongs to the 1,5-benzodiazepine class of drugs and is expected to have a better side-effect profile compared to older 1,4-benzodiazepines. It has been marketed as an anxiolytic since 1975 and an anticonvulsant since 1984. The oral preparation was FDA approved on October 21, 2011. An oral suspension is expected to be available in 2013.
Haloxazolam is a benzodiazepine drug marketed primarily in Japan. It has similar hypnotic properties as the benzodiazepine drugs triazolam, temazepam, and flunitrazepam. It is indicated for the treatment insomnia.
Camazepam is a benzodiazepine which is a dimethyl carbamate ester of tamzepam, a metabolite of diazepam. Similarly to other drugs in its class, it has antxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. However, unlike other benzodiapeines camazepam is predominantly anxiolytic and is relatively weak as an anticonvulsant, hypnotic and skeletal muscle relaxant. Camazepam also has less side effects, such as impaired cognition and reaction times, compared to other benzodiazepines. However, impairment of cognition and disrupted sleep patterns will occur at doses higher than 40mg of carazepam.]Camazepam is also believed to increase attention, and is associated with skin disorders. In the United States camazepam is regulated as a Schedule IV controlled substance.
Delorazepam is a benzodiazepine which, like other drugs in its class, possesses anxiolytic, skeletal muscle relaxant, hypnotic and anticonvulsant properties. It may have adverse effects such as drowsiness, and cognitive impairments such as short term memory impairment. Delorazepam is an active metabolite of the benzodiazepine known as cloxazolam. It is a long acting benzodiazepine which makes it superior in this sense to lorazepam which is short acting. Lorazepam is also a major active metabolite of delorazepam. In addition to be long acting, delorazepam is relatively potent, with 1 mg of delorazepam being the equivalent of 10 mg diazepam. It has been approved for marketing in Italy.
Ethyl loflazepate (marketed under the brand names Meilax, Ronlax and Victan) is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. In animal studies it was found to have low toxicity, although in rats evidence of pulmonary phospholipidosis occurred with pulmonary foam cells developing with long-term use of very high doses. Its elimination half-life is 51 hours - 103 hours.
Cloxazolam is a benzodiazepine with anxiolytic, sedative/hypnotic, muscle relaxant, and antiepileptic effects. It is marketed in the Argentina, Australia, Portugal, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Germany, Taiwan and Japan -- mainly for anti-anxiety. The usual dose of cloxazolam in adults is 3-12mg/day for anti-anxiety. Although less commonly noted, it has also been reported as clinically effective in the treatment of depression, schizophrenia, and neurosis. As well, it has also been studied in Japan in doses of 15-30mg/day as an adjunct in the treatment of intractable epilepsy, for which it has demonstrated effectiveness.
Fludiazepam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is a scheduled drug in the U.S., but is approved for use in Japan.
Ketazolam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Ketazolam is not approved for sale in the United States or Canada.
Tofisopam (marketed under brand names Emandaxin and Grandaxin) is a 2,3-benzodiazepine drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. In contrast to classical 1,4-benzodiazepines, the compound does not bind to the benzodiazepine binding site of the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor and its psychopharmacological profile differs from such compounds. Although Tofisopam is not approved for sale in North America, it is approved for use in various countries worldwide, including parts of Europe. The D-enantiomer (dextofisopam) is currently in phase II trials in the U.S. for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome.
Brotizolam is a sedative-hypnotic thienodiazepine drug which is a benzodiazepine analog. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties, and is considered to be similar in effect to short-acting benzodiazepines such as triazolam. It is used in the short term treatment of severe or debilitating insomnia. Brotizolam is an extremely potent drug and it is rapidly eliminated with an average half-life of 4.4 hours (range 3.6 - 7.9 hours). Brotizolam is not approved for sale in the UK, United States or Canada. It is approved for sale in the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, Belgium, Austria, Portugal, Israel, Italy and Japan.
Pyrocatechol, often known as catechol or benzene-1,2-diol, is a benzenediol, with formula C6H4(OH)2. It was first prepared in 1839 by H. Reinsch by distilling catechin (the juice of Mimosa catechu). This colourless compound occurs naturally, but about 20000 tons are manufactured each year, mainly as precursors to pesticides, flavors, and fragrances. Its sulfonic acid is often present in the urine of many mammals. Small amounts of catechol occur naturally in fruits and vegetables, along with the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. Upon mixing the enzyme with the substrate and exposure to oxygen (as when a potato or apple is cut), the colorless catechol oxidizes to reddish-brown benzoquinone derivatives. The enzyme is inactivated by adding an acid, such as lemon juice, or by refrigeration. Excluding oxygen also prevents the browning reaction. Catechol melts at 28 oC and boils at 250 oC. It is employed in medicine as an expectorant. The dimethyl ether or veratrol is also used in medicine. Many other pyrocatechin derivatives have been suggested for therapeutic application.
Guaiacol is a phenolic compound with a methoxy group and is the monomethyl ether of catechol. Guaiacol is readily oxidized by the heme iron of peroxidases including the peroxidase of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes. It therefore serves as a reducing co-substrate for COX reactions. Guaiacol is a phenolic natural product first isolated from Guaiac resin and the oxidation of lignin. It is a yellowish aromatic oil that is now commonly derived from guaiacum or wood creosote. It is used medicinally as an expectorant, antiseptic, and local anesthetic. Guaiacol is used in traditional dental pulp sedation, and has the property of inducing cell proliferation; guaiacol is a potent scavenger of reactive oxygen radicals and its radical scavenging activity may be associated with its effect on cell proliferation. Guaiacol is also used in the preparation of synthetic vanillin. Guaiacol is also present in wood smoke, as a product of pyrolysis of lignin. Guaiacol has been found in the urine of patients with neuroblastoma and pheochromocytoma. (A3556, A3559).
Hydroquinone, also benzene-1,4-diol, is an aromatic organic compound which is a type of phenol. Hydroquinone is commonly used as a biomarker for benzene exposure. The presence of hydroquinone in normal individuals stems mainly from direct dietary ingestion, catabolism of tyrosine and other substrates by gut bacteria, ingestion of arbutin containing foods, cigarette smoking, and the use of some over-the-counter medicines. In human medicine, hydroquinone is used as a topical application in skin whitening to reduce the color of skin. In 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration revoked its previous approval of hydroquinone and proposed a ban on all over-the-counter preparations. The FDA stated that hydroquinone cannot be ruled out as a potential carcinogen. This conclusion was reached based on the extent of absorption in humans and the incidence of neoplasms in rats in several studies where adult rats were found to have increased rates of tumours, including thyroid follicular cell hyperplasias, anisokaryosis, mononuclear cell leukemia, hepatocellular adenomas and renal tubule cell adenomas. Numerous studies have revealed that hydroquinone can cause exogenous ochronosis, a disfiguring disease in which blue-black pigments are deposited onto the skin, if taken orally; however, skin preparations containing the ingredient are administered topically. The FDA has classified hydroquinone currently as a safe product, as currently used. (Wikipedia)
Quinone is also called 1,4-benzoquinone or cyclohexadienedione. Quinones are oxidized derivatives of aromatic compounds and are often readily made from reactive aromatic compounds with electron-donating substituents such as phenols and catechols, which increase the nucleophilicity of the ring and contributes to the large redox potential needed to break aromaticity. Derivatives of quinones are common constituents of biologically relevant molecules. Some serve as electron acceptors in electron transport chains such as those in photosynthesis (plastoquinone, phylloquinone), and aerobic respiration (ubiquinone). Quinone is a common constituent of biologically relevant molecules (e.g. Vitamin K1 is phylloquinone). A natural example of quinones as oxidizing agents is the spray of bombardier beetles. Hydroquinone is reacted with hydrogen peroxide to produce a fiery blast of steam, a strong deterent in the animal world.
1,3-Benzenediol is found in alcoholic beverages. 1,3-Benzenediol is present in roasted barley, cane molasses, coffee, beer and wine. 1,3-Benzenediol is a flavouring ingredient1,3-Benzenediol belongs to the family of Resorcinols. These are compounds containing a resorcinol moiety, which is a benzene ring bearing two hydrocyl groups at positions 1 and 3.
1-Methyl-6-phenyl-1H-imidazo[4,5-b]pyridin-2-amine is a food-related mutagen, reported to be the most abundant heterocyclic amine found in cooked meat and fish.
Ethyl carbamate (also known as urethane) is an ester of carbamic acid.  It is not a component of polyurethanes.  Urethane can be produced by the reaction of ammonia with ethyl chloroformate or by heating urea nitrate and ethyl alcohol. It was first prepared in the mid 1800’s. Ethyl carbamate was used as an antineoplastic agent in the treatment of multiple myeloma before it was found in 1943 to be toxic, carcinogenic and largely ineffective. Japanese usage in medical injections continued and from 1950 to 1975. Ethyl carbamate has now been withdrawn from pharmaceutical use. However, small quantities of ethyl carbamate are also used in laboratories as an anesthetic for animals. Studies have shown that most, if not all, yeast-fermented alcoholic beverages contain traces of ethyl carbamate (15 ppb to 12 ppm). Other foods and beverages prepared by means of fermentation also contain ethyl carbamate. For example, bread has been found to contain 2 ppb while as much as 20 ppb has been found in some samples of soy sauce.  “Natural” ethyl carbamate is formed during distillation from natural precursors such as cyanide, urea, citrulline and other N-carbamoyl compounds.
According to the Italian P.I. sheet etizolam belongs to a new class of diazepines, thienotriazolodiazepines. This new class is easily oxidized, rapidly metabolized, and has a lower risk of accumulation, even after prolonged treatment. Etizolam has an anxiolytic action about 6 times greater than that of diazepam. Etizolam produces, especially at higher dosages, a reduction in time taken to fall asleep, an increase in total sleep time and a reduction in the number of awakenings. During tests there were not substantial changes in deep sleep. There is a reduction of REM sleep. In EEG tests of healthy volunteers Etizolam showed some characteristics of tricyclic antidepressants. Etizolam (marketed under the brand name Etilaam, Etizola, Sedekopan, Pasaden or Depas) is a thienodiazepine drug which is a benzodiazepine analog. The etizolam molecule differs from a benzodiazepine in that the benzene ring has been replaced by a thiophene ring. It possesses amnesic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
Lormetazepam (INN, or methyl-lorazepam, is a drug which is a short to intermediate acting 3-hydroxy benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. Lormetazepam is considered a hypnotic benzodiazepine and is officially indicated for moderate to severe insomnia. Lormetazepam is a short-acting benzodiazepine and is sometimes used in patients who have difficulty in maintaining sleep or falling asleep. Hypnotics should only be used on a short-term basis or, in those with chronic insomnia, on an occasional basis.
Pinazepam (marketed under the brand name Domar and Duna) is a drug which is a benzodiazepine. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
Nordiazepam is a metabolite of Diazepam. Diazepam, first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche, is a benzodiazepine drug. Nordazepam, also known as desoxydemoxepam, nordiazepam and desmethyldiazepam, is a 1,4-benzodiazepine derivative. Like other benzodiazepine derivatives, it has anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant and sedative properties. (Wikipedia)
Butanone occurs as a natural product. It is made by some trees and found in some fruits and vegetables in small amounts. It is also released to the air from car and truck exhausts. The known health effects to people from exposure to butanone are irritation of the nose, throat, skin, and eyes. (wikipedia).
Butyric acid, a four-carbon fatty acid, is formed in the human colon by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrates (including dietary fiber), and putatively suppresses colorectal cancer (CRC). Butyrate has diverse and apparently paradoxical effects on cellular proliferation, apoptosis and differentiation that may be either pro-neoplastic or anti-neoplastic, depending upon factors such as the level of exposure, availability of other metabolic substrate and the intracellular milieu. In humans, the relationship between luminal butyrate exposure and CRC has been examined only indirectly in case-control studies, by measuring fecal butyrate concentrations, although this may not accurately reflect effective butyrate exposure during carcinogenesis. Perhaps not surprisingly, results of these investigations have been mutually contradictory. The direct effect of butyrate on tumorigenesis has been assessed in a no. of in vivo animal models, which have also yielded conflicting results. In part, this may be explained by methodology: differences in the amount and route of butyrate administration, which are likely to significantly influence delivery of butyrate to the distal colon. (A3624) Butyric acid is a carboxylic acid found in rancid butter, parmesan cheese, and vomit, and has an unpleasant odor and acrid taste, with a sweetish aftertaste (similar to ether). Butyric acid is a fatty acid occurring in the form of esters in animal fats and plant oils. Interestingly, low-molecular-weight esters of butyric acid, such as methyl butyrate, have mostly pleasant aromas or tastes. As a consequence, they find use as food and perfume additives. Butyrate is produced as end-product of a fermentation process solely performed by obligate anaerobic bacteria.
Caprylic acid is the common name for the eight-carbon straight chain fatty acid known by the systematic name octanoic acid. It is found naturally in coconuts and breast milk. It is an oily liquid with a slightly unpleasant rancid taste that is minimally soluble in water. Caprylic acid is used commercially in the production of esters used in perfumery and also in the manufacture of dyes.
It is a colorless oily liquid smelling of cheese. It is a fatty acid found naturally in various animal fats and oils. Caproic acid is a medium chain triglycerides (MCT). MCTs are widely used for parenteral nutrition in individuals requiring supplemental nutrition and are being more widely used in foods, drugs and cosmetics; they are essentially non-toxic. It is safe for human dietary consumption up to levels of 1g/kg. (A3658).
Lauric acid, or dodecanoic acid is the main fatty acid in coconut oil and in palm kernel oil, and is believed to have antimicrobial properties. It is a white, powdery solid with a faint odor of bay oil. Lauric acid, although slightly irritating to mucous membranes, has a very low toxicity and so is used in many soaps and shampoos.
Heptanoic acid, also called enanthic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid. It is an oily liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils. It is slightly soluble in water, but well soluble in ethanol and ether.
Myristic acid is a saturated 14-carbon fatty acid occurring in most animal and vegetable fats, particularly butterfat and coconut, palm, and nutmeg oils. It is used to synthesize flavor and as an ingredient in soaps and cosmetics. (From Dorland, 28th ed). Myristic acid is also commonly added to a penultimate nitrogen terminus glycine in receptor-associated kinases to confer the membrane localisation of the enzyme. this is achieved by the myristic acid having a high enough hydrophobicity to become incorporated into the fatty acyl core of the phospholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of the eukaryotic cell.(wikipedia).
Tridecanoic acid is a short-chain fatty acid.
A lignan (lignans) found in podophyllin resin from the roots of podophyllum plants. It is a potent spindle poison, toxic if taken internally, and has been used as a cathartic. It is very irritating to skin and mucous membranes, has keratolytic actions, has been used to treat warts and keratoses, and may have antineoplastic properties, as do some of its congeners and derivatives.
Prunasin is found in almond. Prunasin is isolated from kernels of Prunus species, immature fruits of Passiflora species and leaves of perilla (Perilla frutescens var. acuta) Prunasin belongs to the family of O-glycosyl Compounds. These are glycosides in which a sugar group is bonded through one carbon to another group via a O-glycosidic bond.
Sambunigrin is found in black elderberry. Sambunigrin is isolated from leaves of elderberry (Sambucus nigra) and from other plantsSambunigrin belongs to the family of O-glycosyl Compounds. These are glycosides in which a sugar group is bonded through one carbon to another group via a O-glycosidic bond.
7H-Dibenzo[c,g]carbazole (DBC) is is a needle-like solid, a potent multispecies, multisite carcinogen present in the environment. The metabolic activation pathways of DBC are not completely known. It may irritate the eyes, nose, and throat.
3-Aminobiphenyl is an amine derivative of biphenyl. It is used to manufacture azo dyes. It is a known human carcinogen[2] and so it has been largely replaced by less toxic compounds.
N-(2-Cyanoethyl)valine is a modified amino acid that arises from acrylonitrile modification of N-terminal amino acid in hemoglobin. It is used as a biomarker of long term or historical exposure to acrylonitrile (a byproduct of smoking cigarettes).  The free amino acid arises from proteolytic degradation of hemoglobin.
1,2-Naphthoquinone or ortho-naphthoquinone is a polycyclic aromatic organic compound with formula C10H6O2. This double ketone (quinone) is a reactive metabolite of naphthalene and is found in diesel exhaust particles. The accumulation of this toxic metabolite in rats from doses of naphthalene has been shown to cause eye damage, including the formation of cataracts. Naphthalene is a constituent of jet fuel, diesel fuel and cigarette smoke. It is also a byproduct of incomplete combustion and hence is an ubiquitous environmental pollutant. The typical air concentration of naphthalene in cities is about 0.18 ppb.
1,4-Naphthoquinone or para-naphthoquinone is an organic compound derived from naphthalene. Several isomeric naphthoquinones are known, notably 1,2-naphthoquinone. 1,4-Naphthoquinone forms volatile yellow triclinic crystals and has a sharp odor similar to benzoquinone. It is almost insoluble in cold water, slightly soluble in petroleum ether, and more soluble in polar organic solvents. In alkaline solutions it produces a reddish-brown color. Vitamin K is a derivative of 1,4-naphthoquinone. It is a planar molecule with one aromatic ring fused to a quinone subunit. Naphthalene is a constituent of jet fuel, diesel fuel and cigarette smoke. It is also a byproduct of incomplete combustion and hence is an ubiquitous environmental pollutant. The typical air concentration of naphthalene in cities is about 0.18 ppb.
Doxefazepam (marketed under brand name Doxans) is a benzodiazepine derivative drug developed by Schiapparelli in the 1970s. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is used therapeutically as a hypnotic. According to Babbini and colleagues in 1975, this derivative of flurazepam was between 2 and 4 times more potent than the latter while at the same time being half as toxic in laboratory animals.
Loprazolam (Triazulenone) marketed under the brand names Dormonoct, Havlane, Sonin, Somnovit, is a drug which is an imidazole benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is available in 1 mg and 2 mg tablets. It is licensed and marketed for the short term treatment of moderately severe insomnia.
Medazepam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties.
Mexazolam (marketed under the trade names Melex and Sedoxil) is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. Mexazolam has been trialed for anxiety and was found to be effective in alleviating anxiety at one week follow-up, however, after three weeks of therapy mexazolam had lost its therapeutic anxiolytic properties becoming no more effective than placebo, presumably due to benzodiazepine tolerance. Mexazolam is metabolised via the CYP3A4 pathway. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors including simvastatin, simvastatin acid, lovastatin, fluvastatin, atorvastatin and cerivastatin inhibit the metabolism of mexazolam, but not the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor pravastatin.
Nimetazepam (marketed under brand name Erimin) is an intermediate-acting hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It was first synthesized by a team at Hoffmann-La Roche in 1962.
Oxazolam is a drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative and skeletal muscle relaxant properties. It is a prodrug for desmethyldiazepam.
Bromomethyl ethyl ketone is a lachrymatory agent. It produces immediate pain to the eyes and irritate mucous membranes. This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as organobromides. These are compounds containing a chemical bond between a carbon atom and a bromine atom.
Phosgene oxime, or CX, is an organic compound with the formula Cl2CNOH. It is a potent chemical weapon, specifically a nettle agent. The compound itself is a colorless solid, but impure samples are often yellowish liquids. It has a strong, disagreeable odor and a violently irritating vapor.
Trichloronitroso-methane is a lachrymatory agent. It produces immediate pain to the eyes and irritate mucous membranes. This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as c-nitroso compounds. These are nitroso compounds with he general formula RN=O, where R is an organic group.
Chloropicrin, also known as PS, is a chemical compound currently used as a broad-spectrum antimicrobial, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, and nematicide. Chloropicrin can be absorbed systemically through inhalation, ingestion, and the skin. At high concentrations it is severely irritating to the lungs, eyes, and skin. In World War I German forces used concentrated chloropicrin against Allied forces as a tear gas. While not as lethal as other chemical weapons, it caused vomiting and forced Allied soldiers to remove their masks to vomit, exposing them to other, more toxic chemical gases used as weapons during the war. (Wikipedia)
P-Chloroacetophenone is a lachrymatory agent. It produces immediate pain to the eyes and irritate mucous membranes. This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as acetophenones. These are organic compounds containing the acetophenone structure.
p-Chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile is a lachrymatory agent. It produces immediate pain to the eyes and irritate mucous membranes.
Dibenz(b,F)-1,4-oxazepine, also known as CR gas and dibenzoxazepine, is an incapacitating agent and a lachrymatory agent. It was developed by the British Ministry of Defence as a riot control agent in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Dibenz(b,F)-1,4-oxazepine is a lachrymatory agent (LA), exerting its effects through activation of the TRPA1 channel. It is a suspected carcinogen. It is toxic, but less so than CS gas (2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile), by ingestion and exposure. However, it can be lethal in large quantities. In a poorly ventilated space, an individual may inhale a lethal dose within minutes. Death is caused by asphyxiation and pulmonary edema. The effect of CR is long-term and persistent. CR can persist on surfaces, especially porous ones, for up to 60 days.
a-Chloroacetophenone is commonly known as a tear gas, a peripheral sensory irritant. It is also used as an intermediate to produce organic substances especially drugs.
The compound 2-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (also called o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile) (chemical formula: C10H5ClN2), acyanocarbon, is the defining component of a tear gas commonly referred to as CS gas, which is used as a riot control agent. CS gas is an aerosol of avolatile solvent (a substance that dissolves other active substances and that easily evaporates) and 2-chlorobenzalmalononitrile, which is a solid compound at room temperature.
Ethyl iodoacetate is a chemical compound that is a derivative of ethyl acetate. It is a lachrymatory agent.
Chloracetone is lachrymator with an irritating odor. It is used in color photography, insecticides, perfumes, organic synthesis and tear gas, and in the polymerization of vinyl monomers. Chloracetone belongs to the class of organic compounds known as organochlorides. These are compounds containing a chemical bond between a carbon atom and a chlorine atom.
Sodium chloride or table salt is a mineral substance belonging to the larger class of compounds called ionic salts. Salt in its natural form is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in the ocean, which has about 35 grams of sodium chloride per litre, corresponding to a salinity of 3.5%. Salt is essential for animal life, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues. Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous of food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt is produced from salt mines or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Salt is used in many industrial processes and in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp and many other consumer products. Of the global annual production of around 200,000,000 tonnes of salt, only 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning, highway de-icing and various agricultural applications. For humans, salt is a major source of sodium. Sodium is essential to life: it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one of the factors involved in the regulation of water content.
Generally refers to the 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids. In humans, it is produced primarily by the cyclic ovaries and the placenta. It is also produced by the adipose tissue of men and postmenopausal women. The 17-alpha-isomer of estradiol binds weakly to estrogen receptors (receptors, estrogen) and exhibits little estrogenic activity in estrogen-responsive tissues. Various isomers can be synthesized.
2,4-toluenediamine belongs to the family of Toluenes. These are compounds containing a benzene ring which bears a methane group.
4,4'-methylenedianiline belongs to the family of Diphenylmethanes. These are compounds containing a diphenylmethane moiety, which consists of a methane wherein two hydrogen atoms are replaced by two phenyl groups[1].
Adapalene is a topical retinoid primarily used in the treatment of acne and is also used (off-label) to treat keratosis pilaris as well as other skin conditions. It is currently marketed by Galderma under the trade names Differin in some countries, and Adaferin in India.
Aminoacridine derivative that is a potent intercalating antineoplastic agent. It is effective in the treatment of acute leukemias and malignant lymphomas, but has poor activity in the treatment of solid tumors. It is frequently used in combination with other antineoplastic agents in chemotherapy protocols. It produces consistent but acceptable myelosuppression and cardiotoxic effects.
Arecoline is found in nuts. Arecoline is isolated from betel nuts Arecoline is an alkaloid natural product found in the areca nut, the fruit of the areca palm (Areca catechu). It is an oily liquid that is soluble in water, alcohols, and ether. Owing to its muscarinic and nicotinic agonist properties, arecoline has shown improvement in the learning ability of healthy volunteers. Since one of the hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease is a cognitive decline, arecoline was suggested as a treatment to slow down this process and arecoline administered via i.v. route did indeed show modest verbal and spatial memory improvement in Alzheimer's patients, though due to arecoline's possible carcinogenic properties, it is not the first drug of choice for this degenerative disease. Arecoline has been shown to exhibit apoptotic, excitant and steroidogenic functions (A7876, A7878, A7879). Arecoline belongs to the family of Alkaloids and Derivatives. These are naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and more rarely other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.
Azacitidine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a pyrimidine nucleoside analogue that inhibits DNA methyltransferase, impairing DNA methylation. It is also an antimetabolite of cytidine, incorporated primarily into RNA. Azacytidine has been used as an antineoplastic agent. Azacitidine (5-azacytidine) is a chemical analogue of the cytosine nucleoside used in DNA and RNA. Azacitidine is thought to induce antineoplastic activity via two mechanisms; inhibition of DNA methyltransferase at low doses, causing hypomethylation of DNA, and direct cytotoxicity in abnormal hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow through its incorporation into DNA and RNA at high doses, resulting in cell death. As azacitidine is a ribonucleoside, it incoporates into RNA to a larger extent than into DNA. The incorporation into RNA leads to the dissembly of polyribosomes, defective methylation and acceptor function of transfer RNA, and inhibition of the production of protein. Its incorporation into DNA leads to a covalent binding with DNA methyltransferases, which prevents DNA synthesis and subsequent cytotoxicity.
Azathioprine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an immunosuppressive pro-drug. It is converted into 6-mercaptopurine in the body where it blocks purine metabolism and DNA synthesis.Azathioprine antagonizes purine metabolism and may inhibit synthesis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. It may also interfere with cellular metabolism and inhibit mitosis. Its mechanism of action is likely due to incorporation of thiopurine analogues into the DNA structure, causing chain termination and cytotoxicity.
Carmustine is a cell-cycle phase nonspecific alkylating antineoplastic agent. It is used in the treatment of brain tumors and various other malignant neoplasms. This substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen according to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985).
A nitrogen mustard alkylating agent used as antineoplastic agent for the treatment of various malignant and nonmalignant diseases. Although it is less toxic than most other nitrogen mustards, it has been listed as a known carcinogen in the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985).
Chloromethyl methyl ether is used to modify ion-exchange membranes used in the production of grapefruit juice

Chloromethyl methyl ether belongs to the family of Organochlorides. These are organic compounds containing a chlorine atom.
Cisplatin, cisplatinum or cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP) is a platinum-based chemotherapy drug used to treat various types of cancers, including sarcomas, some carcinomas (e.g. small cell lung cancer, and ovarian cancer), lymphomas and germ cell tumors. It was the first member of its class, which now also includes carboplatin and oxaliplatin.
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the liver to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of lymphoma and leukemia. Its side effect, alopecia, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
Dacarbazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent. It has significant activity against melanomas. The mechanism of action is not known, but appears to exert cytotoxic effects via its action as an alkylating agent. Other theories include DNA synthesis inhibition by its action as a purine analog, and interaction with SH groups. Dacarbazine is not cell cycle-phase specific.
Dichloroacetic acid, often abbreviated DCA, is an acid analogue of acetic acid in which two of the three hydrogen atoms of the methyl group have been replaced by chlorine atoms. The salts and esters of dichloroacetic acid are called dichloroacetates. Salts of DCA are used as drugs since they inhibit the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase. Early reports of its activity against brain cancer cells led patients to treat themselves with DCA, which is commercially available in non-pharmaceutical grade. A phase 1 study in 5 patients concluded that DCA was safe, but wasn't designed to establish effectiveness.
An estrogenic steroid produced by horses. It has a total of four double bonds in the A- and B-ring. High concentration of euilin is found in the urine of pregnant mares. Equilin is one of the estrogens present in the mixture of estrogens isolated from horse urine and marketed as Premarin. Premarin became the most commonly used form of estrogen for hormone replacement therapy in the United States of America. Estrone is the major estrogen in Premarin (about 50%) and equilin is present as about 25% of the total. Estrone is a major estrogen that is normally found in women. Equilin is not normally present in women, so there has been interest in the effects of equilin on the human body. The estrogens in Premarin are present mainly as "conjugates", modified chemical forms in which the active estrogen is coupled to another chemical group such as sulfate. Estrone sulfate is usually the major form of estrogen in women. After being taken into a woman's body, the conjugated estrogens of Premarin are converted to the active unconjugated estrogens or excreted from the woman's body. Estrone can be converted to estradiol, which is thought to be the major active estrogen in women.
A semisynthetic derivative of podophyllotoxin that exhibits antitumor activity. Etoposide inhibits DNA synthesis by forming a complex with topoisomerase II and DNA. This complex induces breaks in double stranded DNA and prevents repair by topoisomerase II binding. Accumulated breaks in DNA prevent entry into the mitotic phase of cell division, and lead to cell death. Etoposide acts primarily in the G2 and S phases of the cell cycle.
Griseofulvin is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antifungal antibiotic. Griseofulvin may be given by mouth in the treatment of tinea infections. Griseofulvin is fungistatic, however the exact mechanism by which it inhibits the growth of dermatophytes is not clear. It is thought to inhibit fungal cell mitosis and nuclear acid synthesis. It also binds to and interferes with the function of spindle and cytoplasmic microtubules by binding to alpha and beta tubulin. It binds to keratin in human cells, then once it reaches the fungal site of action, it binds to fungal microtubes thus altering the fungal process of mitosis.
A metallic element found in certain minerals, in nearly all soils, and in mineral waters. It is an essential constituent of hemoglobin, cytochrome, and other components of respiratory enzyme systems. Its chief functions are in the transport of oxygen to tissue (hemoglobin) and in cellular oxidation mechanisms. Depletion of iron stores may result in iron-deficiency anemia. Iron is used to build up the blood in anemia.
Isopropyl alcohol or 2-propanol is an isomer of 1-propanol. It is a colorless liquid having disinfectant properties. It is used in the manufacture of acetone and its derivatives and as a solvent. Topically, it is used as an antiseptic. Small amounts of this alcohol are produced naturally by gut microbial flora.
Lomustine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an alkylating agent of value against both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Lomustine is a highly lipophilic nitrosourea compound which undergoes hydrolysis in vivo to form reactive metabolites. These metabolites cause alkylation and cross-linking of DNA (at the O6 position of guanine-containing bases) and RNA, thus inducing cytotoxicity. Other biologic effects include inhibition of DNA synthesis and some cell cycle phase specificity. Nitrosureas generally lack cross-resistance with other alkylating agents. As lomustine is a nitrosurea, it may also inhibit several key processes such as carbamoylation and modification of cellular proteins.
An alkylating nitrogen mustard that is used as an antineoplastic in the form of the levo isomer - melphalan, the racemic mixture - merphalan, and the dextro isomer - medphalan; toxic to bone marrow, but little vesicant action; potential carcinogen.
A nitroimidazole used to treat amebiasis; vaginitis; trichomonas infections; giardiasis; anaerobic bacteria; and treponemal infections. It has also been proposed as a radiation sensitizer for hypoxic cells. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985) this substance may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen.
A derivative of acetic acid, N(CH2COOH)3. It is a complexing (sequestering) agent that forms stable complexes with Zn2+.
Phenacetin was withdrawn from the Canadian market in June 1973 due to concerns regarding nephropathy (damage to or disease of the kidney).
Phenolphthalein was withdrawn in Canada due to concerns with carcinogenicity in 1997.
Prednisone is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from cortisone. It is biologically inert and converted to prednisolone in the liver. Prednisone is a glucocorticoid receptor agonist. It is first metabolized in the liver to its active form, prednisolone. Prednisolone crosses cell membranes and binds with high affinity to specific cytoplasmic receptors. The result includes inhibition of leukocyte infiltration at the site of inflammation, interference in the function of mediators of inflammatory response, suppression of humoral immune responses, and reduction in edema or scar tissue. The antiinflammatory actions of corticosteroids are thought to involve phospholipase A2 inhibitory proteins, lipocortins, which control the biosynthesis of potent mediators of inflammation such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
Procarbazine is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is an antineoplastic agent used primarily in combination with mechlorethamine, vincristine, and prednisone (the MOPP protocol) in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease. The precise mode of cytotoxic action of procarbazine has not been clearly defined. There is evidence that the drug may act by inhibition of protein, RNA and DNA synthesis. Studies have suggested that procarbazine may inhibit transmethylation of methyl groups of methionine into t-RNA. The absence of functional t-RNA could cause the cessation of protein synthesis and consequently DNA and RNA synthesis. In addition, procarbazine may directly damage DNA. Hydrogen peroxide, formed during the auto-oxidation of the drug, may attack protein sulfhydryl groups contained in residual protein which is tightly bound to DNA.
Propylthiouracil is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Propylthiouracil binds to thyroid peroxidase and thereby inhibits the conversion of iodide to iodine. Thyroid peroxidase normally converts iodide to iodine (via hydrogen peroxide as a cofactor) and also catalyzes the incorporation of the resulting iodide molecule onto both the 3 and/or 5 positions of the phenol rings of tyrosines found in thyroglobulin. Thyroglobulin is degraded to produce thyroxine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which are the main hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Therefore propylthiouracil effectively inhibits the production of new thyroid hormones.
Tamoxifen is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is one of the selective estrogen receptor modulators with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the endometrium. Tamoxifen binds to estrogen receptors (ER), inducing a conformational change in the receptor. This results in a blockage or change in the expression of estrogen dependent genes. The prolonged binding of tamoxifen to the nuclear chromatin of these results in reduced DNA polymerase activity, impaired thymidine utilization, blockade of estradiol uptake, and decreased estrogen response. It is likely that tamoxifen interacts with other coactivators or corepressors in the tissue and binds with different estrogen receptors, ER-alpha or ER-beta, producing both estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects.
A semisynthetic derivative of podophyllotoxin that exhibits antitumor activity. Teniposide inhibits DNA synthesis by forming a complex with topoisomerase II and DNA. This complex induces breaks in double stranded DNA and prevents repair by topoisomerase II binding. Accumulated breaks in DNA prevent cells from entering into the mitotic phase of the cell cycle, and lead to cell death. Teniposide acts primarily in the G2 and S phases of the cycle.
N,N'N'-triethylenethiophosphoramide (ThioTEPA) is a cancer chemotherapeutic member of the alkylating agent group, now in use for over 50 years. It is a stable derivative of N,N',N''- triethylenephosphoramide (TEPA). It is mostly used to treat breast cancer, ovarian cancer and bladder cancer. It is also used as conditioning for Bone marrow transplantation. Its main toxicity is myelosuppression.
Uracil mustard is only found in individuals that have used or taken this drug. It is a nitrogen mustard derivative of uracil. It is a alkylating antineoplastic agent that is used in lymphatic malignancies, and causes mainly gastrointestinal and bone marrow damage. After activation, uracil mustard binds preferentially to the guanine and cytosine moieties of DNA, leading to cross-linking of DNA, thus inhibiting DNA synthesis and function.
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3'-hydroxyl group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by a hydrogen. This modification prevents the formation of 5' to 3' phosphodiester linkages, which are needed for the elongation of DNA chains, thus resulting in the termination of viral DNA growth. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication at low concentrations, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA by binding to reverse transcriptase. Its principal toxic side effect is axonal degeneration resulting in peripheral neuropathy.
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3&#39;-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by an azido group. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. The compound is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA during reverse transcription. It improves immunologic function, partially reverses the HIV-induced neurological dysfunction, and improves certain other clinical abnormalities associated with AIDS. Its principal toxic effect is dose-dependent suppression of bone marrow, resulting in anemia and leukopenia.
Ozone is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell.  Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light and also atmospheric electrical discharges. It is present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere. In total, ozone makes up only 0.6 ppm of the atmosphere. In standard conditions, ozone is a pale blue gas that condenses at progressively cryogenic temperatures to a dark blue liquid and finally a violet-black solid. Ozone is a powerful oxidant (far more so than oxygen gas) and has many industrial and consumer applications related to oxidation. This same high oxidizing potential, however, causes ozone to damage mucus and respiratory tissues in animals, and also tissues in plants, above concentrations of about 100 ppb. Ozone's odor is sharp, reminiscent of chlorine, and detectable by many people at concentrations of as little as 10 ppb in air. Ozone, along with reactive forms of oxygen such as superoxide, singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, and hypochlorite ions, is naturally produced by white blood cells.  The largest use of ozone is in the preparation of pharmaceuticals, synthetic lubricants, and many other commercially useful organic compounds. It can also be used for bleaching substances and for killing microorganisms in air and water sources. Many municipal drinking water systems kill bacteria with ozone instead of the more common chlorine.
A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent (NSAID) with antipyretic and analgesic actions. It is primarily available as the sodium salt.
Medroxyprogesterone acetate (INN, USAN, BAN), also known as 17‘±-hydroxy-6‘±-methylprogesterone acetate, and commonly abbreviated as MPA, is a steroidal progestin, a synthetic variant of the human hormone progesterone. It is used as a contraceptive, in hormone replacement therapy and for the treatment of endometriosis as well as several other indications. MPA is a more potent derivative of its parent compound medroxyprogesterone (MP). While medroxyprogesterone is sometimes used as a synonym for medroxyprogesterone acetate, what is normally being administered is MPA and not MP.
A white crystal or crystalline powder used as an electrolyte replenisher, in the treatment of hypokalemia, in buffer solutions, and in fertilizers and explosives.
Tacrolimus (also FK-506 or Fujimycin) is an immunosuppressive drug whose main use is after organ transplant to reduce the activity of the patient's immune system and so the risk of organ rejection. It is also used in a topical preparation in the treatment of severe atopic dermatitis, severe refractory uveitis after bone marrow transplants, and the skin condition vitiligo. It was discovered in 1984 from the fermentation broth of a Japanese soil sample that contained the bacteria Streptomyces tsukubaensis. Tacrolimus is chemically known as a macrolide. It reduces peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity by binding to the immunophilin FKBP-12 (FK506 binding protein) creating a new complex. This FKBP12-FK506 complex interacts with and inhibits calcineurin thus inhibiting both T-lymphocyte signal transduction and IL-2 transcription.
Quinapril is a prodrug that belongs to the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor class of medications. It is metabolized to quinaprilat (quinapril diacid) following oral administration. Quinaprilat is a competitive inhibitor of ACE, the enzyme responsible for the conversion of angiotensin I (ATI) to angiotensin II (ATII). ATII regulates blood pressure and is a key component of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Quinapril may be used to treat essential hypertension and congestive heart failure.
Salmeterol is a long-acting beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist drug that is currently prescribed for the treatment of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease COPD.
Salbutamol is a short-acting, selective beta2-adrenergic receptor agonist used in the treatment of asthma and COPD. It is 29 times more selective for beta2 receptors than beta1 receptors giving it higher specificity for pulmonary beta receptors versus beta1-adrenergic receptors located in the heart. Salbutamol is formulated as a racemic mixture of the R- and S-isomers. The R-isomer has 150 times greater affinity for the beta2-receptor than the S-isomer and the S-isomer has been associated with toxicity. This lead to the development of levalbuterol, the single R-isomer of salbutamol. However, the high cost of levalbuterol compared to salbutamol has deterred wide-spread use of this enantiomerically pure version of the drug. Salbutamol is generally used for acute episodes of bronchospasm caused by bronchial asthma, chronic bronchitis and other chronic bronchopulmonary disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD). It is also used prophylactically for exercise-induced asthma.
Fludarabine (marketed as fludarabine phosphate under the trade name Fludara) is a chemotherapy drug used in the treatment of hematological malignancies.
An antianginal and antiarrhythmic drug. It increases the duration of ventricular and atrial muscle action by inhibiting Na,K-activated myocardial adenosine triphosphatase. There is a resulting decrease in heart rate and in vascular resistance.
All drug products containing encainide hydrochloride. Encainide hydrochloride, formerly marketed as Enkaid capsules, was associated with increased death rates in patients who had asymptomatic heart rhythm abnormalities after a recent heart attack. The manufacturer of Enkaid capsules voluntarily withdrew the product from the US market on December 16, 1991.
Semisynthetic thienamycin that has a wide spectrum of antibacterial activity against gram-negative and gram-positive aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, including many multiresistant strains. It is stable to beta-lactamases. Clinical studies have demonstrated high efficacy in the treatment of infections of various body systems. Its effectiveness is enhanced when it is administered in combination with cilastatin, a renal dipeptidase inhibitor.
A synthetic estrogen that has been used as a hormonal antineoplastic agent.
Aminopterin Syndrome Sine Aminopterin (ASSA, OMIM 600325) is an embryopathy caused by maternal treatment with the olic acid antagonist aminopterin has been recognized since 1952 when aminopterin was used as an abortifacient. The characteristic phenotype of the children who survived infancy after having been exposed to aminopterin or its methyl derivative, methotrexate, in early pregnancy included a very unusual facies, skull anomalies, and skeletal defects.(OMIM). Aminopterin is an antimetabolite drug used in treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases. It acts by inhibiting the metabolism of folic acid. - Wikipedia. The effects of the drug on intracellular metabolic processes, due to the inhibitory action on the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, show that the result of this inhibition is more complex and is not limited to blockade of the reduction of folic acid alone. Although rescue methods are important in prevention of lethal effects of methotrexate, some metabolic pathways are insufficiently rescued, resulting in toxic reactions following methotrexate administration. (A7894)
An anionic surface-active agent used for its wetting properties in industry and used in medicine as an irritant and sclerosing agent for hemorrhoids and varicose veins.
A semisynthetic alkylated estradiol with a 17-alpha-ethinyl substitution. It has high estrogenic potency when administered orally and is often used as the estrogenic component in oral contraceptives . Ethinyl estradiol is marketed mostly as a combination oral contraceptive under several brand names such as Alesse, Tri-Cyclen, Triphasil, and Yasmin. The FDA label includes a black box warning that states that combination oral contraceptives should not be used in women over 35 years old who smoke due to the increased risk of serious cardiovascular side effects.
A synthetic nonsteroidal estrogen used in the treatment of menopausal and postmenopausal disorders. It was also used formerly as a growth promoter in animals. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985), diethylstilbestrol has been listed as a known carcinogen.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception.
Estrone, one of the major mammalian estrogens, is an aromatized C18 steroid with a 3-hydroxyl group and a 17-ketone. It is produced in vivo from androstenedione or from testosterone via estradiol. It is produced primarily in the ovaries, placenta, and in peripheral tissues (especially adipose tissue) through conversion of adrostenedione. Estrone may be further metabolized to 16-alpha-hydroxyestrone, which may be reduced to estriol by estradiol dehydrogenase.
An anti-androgen that, in the form of its acetate (cyproterone acetate), also has progestational properties. It is used in the treatment of hypersexuality in males, as a palliative in prostatic carcinoma, and, in combination with estrogen, for the therapy of severe acne and hirsutism in females.
A synthetic anabolic steroid used for treating men with testosterone deficiency or similar androgen replacement therapies. Also, has antineoplastic properties and so has been used secondarily in women with advanced breast cancer. Methyltestosterone is a schedule III drug in the US.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone and about twice as potent as its racemic or (+-)-isomer (norgestrel). It is used for contraception, control of menstrual disorders, and treatment of endometriosis. It is usually supplied in a racemic mixture (Norgestrel, 6533-00-2). Only the levonorgestrel isomer is active. Levonorgestrel is marketed mostly as a combination oral contraceptive under several brand names such as Alesse, Triphasil, and Min-Ovral.
Busulfan is a bifunctional alkylating agent, having a selective immunosuppressive effect on bone marrow. It is not a structural analog of the nitrogen mustards. It has been used in the palliative treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (myeloid leukemia, chronic), but although symptomatic relief is provided, no permanent remission is brought about. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985), busulfan is listed as a known carcinogen.
Dihydrotestosterone is a potent androgenic metabolite of testosterone. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) is generated by a 5-alpha reduction of testosterone. Unlike testosterone, DHT cannot be aromatized to estradiol therefore DHT is considered a pure androgenic steroid. -- Pubchem; Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) (INN: androstanolone) is a biologically active metabolite of the hormone testosterone, formed primarily in the prostate gland, testes, hair follicles, and adrenal glands by the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase by means of reducing the alpha 4,5 double-bond. Dihydrotestosterone belongs to the class of compounds called androgens, also commonly called androgenic hormones or testoids. DHT is thought to be approximately 30 times more potent than testosterone because of increased affinity to the androgen receptor. -- Wikipedia.
A topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial wounds, burns, ulcers, and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of trypanosomiasis.
A potassium sparing diuretic that acts by antagonism of aldosterone in the distal renal tubules. It is used mainly in the treatment of refractory edema in patients with congestive heart failure, nephrotic syndrome, or hepatic cirrhosis. Its effects on the endocrine system are utilized in the treatments of hirsutism and acne but they can lead to adverse effects. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p827)
An ester of testosterone with a propionate substitution at the 17-beta position.
Stearic acid, also called octadecanoic acid, is one of the useful types of saturated fatty acids that comes from many animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is a waxy solid, and its chemical formula is CH3(CH2)16COOH. Its name comes from the Greek word stear, which means tallow. Its IUPAC name is octadecanoic acid. -- Wikipedia.
A glucocorticoid given, as the free alcohol or in esterified form, orally, intramuscularly, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated.
Fulvestrant is a drug treatment of hormone receptor-positive metastatic breast cancer in post-menopausal women with disease progression following anti-estrogen therapy. It is an estrogen receptor antagonist with no agonist effects, which works both by down-regulating and by degrading the estrogen receptor.
Quercetin is a flavonoid widely distributed in many plants and fruits including red grapes, citrus fruit, tomato, broccoli and other leafy green vegetables, and a number of berries, including raspberries and cranberries. Quercetin itself (aglycone quercetin), as opposed to quercetin glycosides, is not a normal dietary component. Quercitin glycosides are converted to phenolic acids as they pass through the gastrointestinal tract. Quercetin has neither been confirmed scientifically as a specific therapeutic for any condition nor been approved by any regulatory agency. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not approved any health claims for quercetin. Nevertheless, the interest in dietary flavonoids has grown after the publication of several epidemiological studies showing an inverse correlation between dietary consumption of flavonols and flavones and reduced incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. In recent years, a large amount of experimental and some clinical data have accumulated regarding the effects of flavonoids on the endothelium under physiological and pathological conditions. The meta-analysis of seven prospective cohort studies concluded that the individuals in the top third of dietary flavonol intake are associated with a reduced risk of mortality from coronary heart disease as compared with those in the bottom third, after adjustment for known risk factors and other dietary components. A limited number of intervention studies with flavonoids and flavonoid containing foods and extracts has been performed in several pathological conditions. (A7896)
The L-triiodothyronine (T<sub>3</sub>, liothyronine) thyroid hormone is normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than L-tetraiodothyronine (T<sub>4</sub>, levothyroxine, L-thyroxine). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5 position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
Alpha cyclodextrin is a naturally occurring, cyclic oligosaccharide, enzymatically produced from starch. It is a well-defined, chemically pure substance consisting of six linked glucose units. It is a multifunctional, soluble dietary fiber marketed for use as a fiber ingredient, an odor or flavor masking agent as well as for emulsification applications. It is registered as a dietary fiber in the European Union. ‘±-Cyclodextrin is marketed for a range of medical, healthcare and food and beverage applications that rely on its ability to bind to fats and reduce their bioavailability both in the body and in food and beverage products.
Butylbenzene belongs to the family of Substituted Benzenes. These are aromatic compounds containing a benzene substituted at one or more positions.
1,3-Butanediol is found in pepper (c. annuum). 1,3-Butanediol is a solvent for flavouring agents 1,3-Butanediol is an organic chemical, an alcohol. It is commonly used as a solvent for food flavouring agents and is a co-monomer used in certain polyurethane and polyester resins. It is one of four stable isomers of butanediol. In biology, 1,3-butanediol is used as a hypoglycaemic agent. 1,3-Butanediol belongs to the family of Secondary Alcohols. These are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl).
Monohydroxy derivatives of cyclohexanes that contain the general formula R-C6H11O. They have a camphorlike odor and are used in making soaps, insecticides, germicides, dry cleaning, and plasticizers.
Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces erythreus. It inhibits bacterial protein synthesis by binding to bacterial 50S ribosomal subunits; binding inhibits peptidyl transferase activity and interferes with translocation of amino acids during translation and assembly of proteins.  Erythromycin may be bacteriostatic or bactericidal depending on the organism and drug concentration.
A sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of chlorpropamide.
N-Decane is found in common oregano. Decane is an alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH3(CH2)8CH3. 75 isomers of decane exist, all of which are flammable liquids. N-Decane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2.
An antineoplastic agent that inhibits DNA synthesis through the inhibition of ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase.
An antiandrogen with about the same potency as cyproterone in rodent and canine species.
Ethanolamine is a viscous, hygroscopic amino alcohol with an ammoniacal odor. It is widely distributed in biological tissue and is a component of lecithin. It is used as a surfactant, fluorometric reagent, and to remove CO2 and H2S from natural gas and other gases.
An antineoplastic compound which also has antimetabolite action. The drug is used in the therapy of acute leukemia.
Celecoxib is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial adenomatous polyposis. It is marketed by Pfizer under the brand name Celebrex. In some countries, it is branded Celebra. Celecoxib is available by prescription in capsule form.
A dideoxynucleoside analog that inhibits reverse transcriptase and has in vitro activity against HIV.
Capric acid is a member of the series of fatty acids found in oils and animal fats. The names of Caproic, Caprylic, and Capric acids are all derived from the word caper (Latin: 'goat'). These are colorless light yellowish transparent oily liquids with unconfortable smells. These are used in organic synthesis, manufacture of perfume, medicine, lubricating grease, rubber and dye.
An antineoplastic agent used in the treatment of lymphoproliferative diseases including hairy-cell leukemia.
An antilipemic agent which reduces both cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood.
A pyrimidine analog that is an antineoplastic antimetabolite. It interferes with DNA synthesis by blocking the thymidylate synthetase conversion of deoxyuridylic acid to thymidylic acid.
Antibacterial agent used primarily as a tuberculostatic. It remains the treatment of choice for tuberculosis.
One of the folic acid antagonists that is used as an antimalarial or with a sulfonamide to treat toxoplasmosis.
A methylxanthine derivative from tea with diuretic, smooth muscle relaxant, bronchial dilation, cardiac and central nervous system stimulant activities. Mechanistically, theophylline acts as a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, adenosine receptor blocker, and histone deacetylase activator. Theophylline is marketed under several brand names such as Uniphyl and Theochron, and it is indicated mainly for asthma, bronchospasm, and COPD.
A thiazide diuretic often considered the prototypical member of this class. It reduces the reabsorption of electrolytes from the renal tubules. This results in increased excretion of water and electrolytes, including sodium, potassium, chloride, and magnesium. It has been used in the treatment of several disorders including edema, hypertension, diabetes insipidus, and hypoparathyroidism.
Pentadecane belongs to the family of Acyclic Alkanes. These are acyclic hydrocarbons consisting only of n carbon atoms and m hydrogen atoms where m=2*n + 2
Nilutamide is an antineoplastic hormonal agent primarily used in the treatment of prostate cancer. Nilutamide is a pure, nonsteroidal anti-androgen with affinity for androgen receptors (but not for progestogen, estrogen, or glucocorticoid receptors). Consequently, Nilutamide blocks the action of androgens of adrenal and testicular origin that stimulate the growth of normal and malignant prostatic tissue. Prostate cancer is mostly androgen-dependent and can be treated with surgical or chemical castration. To date, antiandrogen monotherapy has not consistently been shown to be equivalent to castration.
A fibric acid derivative used in the treatment of hyperlipoproteinemia type III and severe hypertriglyceridemia.
Benzoic acid, C6H5COOH, is a colourless crystalline solid and the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid. Benzoic acid occurs naturally free and bound as benzoic acid esters in many plant and animal species. Appreciable amounts have been found in most berries (around 0.05%). Cranberries contain as much as 300-1300 mg free benzoic acid per kg fruit. Benzoic acid is a fungistatic compound that is widely used as a food preservative. It often is conjugated to glycine in the liver and excreted as hippuric acid. Benzoic acid is a byproduct of phenylalanine metabolism in bacteria. It is also produced when gut bacteria process polyphenols (from ingested fruits or beverages).
A dideoxynucleoside compound in which the 3&#39;-hydroxy group on the sugar moiety has been replaced by a hydrogen. This modification prevents the formation of phosphodiester linkages which are needed for the completion of nucleic acid chains. Didanosine is a potent inhibitor of HIV replication, acting as a chain-terminator of viral DNA by binding to reverse transcriptase; ddI is then metabolized to dideoxyadenosine triphosphate, its putative active metabolite.
Lovastatin is a cholesterol-lowering agent that belongs to the class of medications called statins. It was the second agent of this class discovered. It was discovered by Alfred Alberts and his team at Merck in 1978 after screening only 18 compounds over 2 weeks. The agent, also known as mevinolin, was isolated from the fungi <i>Aspergillus terreus</i>. Research on this compound was suddenly shut down in 1980 and the drug was not approved until 1987. Interesting, Akira Endo at Sankyo Co. (Japan) patented lovastatin isolated from <i>Monascus ruber</i> four months before Merck. Lovastatin was found to be 2 times more potent than its predecessor, mevastatin, the first discovered statin. Like mevastatin, lovastatin is structurally similar to hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG), a substituent of HMG-Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA), a substrate of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway via the mevalonic acid pathway. Lovastatin is a competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase with a binding affinity 20,000 times greater than HMG-CoA. Lovastatin differs structurally from mevastatin by a single methyl group at the 6' position. Lovastatin is a prodrug that is activated by <i>in vivo</i> hydrolysis of the lactone ring. It, along with mevastatin, has served as one of the lead compounds for the development of the synthetic compounds used today.
Simvastatin is a lipid-lowering agent that is derived synthetically from the fermentation of Aspergillus terreus. It is a potent competitive inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (hydroxymethylglutaryl COA reductases), which is the rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis. It may also interfere with steroid hormone production. Due to the induction of hepatic LDL receptors, it increases breakdown of LDL cholesterol.
Troglitazone was withdrawn in 2000 due to risk of hepatotoxicity. It was superseded by pioglitazone and rosiglitazone.
A hydroxylated metabolite of estradiol or estrone that has a hydroxyl group at C3-beta, 16-alpha, and 17-beta position. Estriol is a major urinary estrogen. During pregnancy, large amount of estriol is produced by the placenta. Isomers with inversion of the hydroxyl group or groups are called epiestriol. Though estriol is used as part of the primarily North American phenomenon of bioidentical hormone replacement therapy, it is not approved for use by the FDA or Health Canada. It is however available in the United States by prescription filled only by compounding pharmacies. It has also been approved and marketed throughout Europe and Asia for approximately 40 years for the treatment of post-menopausal hot flashes.
The 3-methyl ether of ethinyl estradiol. It must be demethylated to be biologically active. It is used as the estrogen component of many combination ORAL contraceptives.
17α-Hydroxyprogesterone caproate is a synthetic steroid hormone that is similar to medroxyprogesterone acetate and megestrol acetate. It is an ester derivative of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone formed from caproic acid (hexanoic acid). 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone caproate was previously marketed under the trade name Delalutin by Squibb, which was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1956 and withdrawn from marketing in 1999. Cytyc is seeking FDA approval to market 17α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate under the trade name Gestiva for prevention of preterm delivery in women with a history of preterm delivery. [Wikipedia]
Rhodamine 6G is a highly fluorescent Rhodamine family dye. It is often used as a tracer dye within water to determine the rate and direction of flow and transport. Rhodamine dyes fluoresce and can thus be detected easily and inexpensively with instruments called fluorometers. Rhodamine dyes are used extensively in biotechnology applications such as fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and ELISA.
Kaempferol is a natural flavonoid which has been isolated from Delphinium, Witch-hazel, grapefruit, and other plant sources. Kaempferol is a yellow crystalline solid with a melting point of 276-278 degree centigrade. It is slightly soluble in water, and well soluble in hot ethanol and diethyl ether.
Anastrozole is a drug indicated in the treatment of breast cancer in post-menopausal women. It is used both in adjuvant therapy (i.e. following surgery) and in metastatic breast cancer. It decreases the amount of estrogens that the body makes. Anastrozole belongs in the class of drugs known as aromatase inhibitors. It inhibits the enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for converting androgens (produced by women in the adrenal glands) to estrogens.
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals and plants, a saturated fatty acid found in fats and waxes including olive oil, palm oil, and body lipids. It occurs in the form of esters (glycerides) in oils and fats of vegetable and animal origin and is usually obtained from palm oil, which is widely distributed in plants. Palmitic acid is used in determination of water hardness and is an active ingredient of *Levovist*TM, used in echo enhancement in sonographic Doppler B-mode imaging and as an ultrasound contrast medium.
Iopanoic acid is an iodine-containing radiocontrast medium used in cholecystography.
Azelaic acid is a saturated dicarboxylic acid found naturally in wheat, rye, and barley. It is a natural substance that is produced by Malassezia furfur (also known as Pityrosporum ovale), a yeast that lives on normal skin. It is effective against a number of skin conditions, such as mild to moderate acne, when applied topically in a cream formulation of 20%. It works in part by stopping the growth of skin bacteria that cause acne, and by keeping skin pores clear. Azelaic acid's antimicrobial action may be attributable to inhibition of microbial cellular protein synthesis.
Maleic acid is an industrial raw material for the production of glyoxylic acid by ozonolysis. Maleic acid is an organic compound which is a dicarboxylic acid (molecule with two carboxyl groups). The molecule consists of an ethylene group flanked by two carboxylic acid groups. Maleic acid is the cis isomer of butenedioic acid, whereas fumaric acid is the trans isomer. The cis isomer is the less stable one of the two; the difference in heat of combustion is 22.7 kJ/mol. The physical properties of maleic acid are very different from that of fumaric acid. Maleic acid is soluble in water whereas fumaric acid is not and the melting point of maleic acid (130 - 131 degree centigrade) is also much lower than that of fumaric acid (287 degree centigrade). Both properties of maleic acid can be explained on account of the intramolecular hydrogen bonding that takes place at the expense of intermolecular interactions. Maleic acid is converted into maleic anhydride by dehydration, to malic acid by hydration, and to succinic acid by hydrogenation. It reacts with thionyl chloride or phosphorus pentachloride to give the maleic acid chloride (it is not possible to isolate the mono acid chloride). Maleic acid is a reactant in many Diels-Alder reactions.
Tetraethylene glycol is an industrial solvent/chemical with a higher boiling point and lower volatility than the lower ethylene glycols. It is especially useful in polyester resins and as a plasticizer. Tetraethylene glycol is also used as a chemical intermediate and as a solvent in the production of inks and dyes. Tetraethylene glycol is often used as a process solvent in hydrocarbon purification processes and as a coupling agent in the production of textile lubricants and formulations.
Oleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colourless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. In chemical terms, oleic acid is classified as a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid. It has the formula CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH. The term "oleic" means related to, or derived from, oil or olive, the oil that is predominantly composed of oleic acid. Oleic acid is the most widely distributed and abundant fatty acid in nature. It is used commercially in the preparation of oleates and lotions, and as a pharmaceutical solvent.  Oleic acid is a major constituent of plant oils e.g. olive oil (about 80%), almond oil (about 80%) and many others, mainly as glyceride. It is also a constituent of tall oil and present in fruits. Oleic acid is a food additive and is used in manufacturing of surfactants, soaps, plasticizers. It is also an emulsifying agent in foods and pharmaceuticals. Oleic acid is a known skin penetrant and may also be used as an herbicide, insecticide, and fungicide.
Letrozole (INN, trade name Femara&#174;) is an oral non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor that has been introduced for the adjuvant treatment of hormonally-responsive breast cancer. Estrogens are produced by the conversion of androgens through the activity of the aromatase enzyme. Letrozole blocks production of estrogens in this way by competitive, reversible binding to the heme of its cytochrome P450 unit. The action is specific, and letrozole does not reduce production of mineralo- or corticosteroids. In contrast, the antiestrogenic action of tamoxifen, the major medical therapy prior to the arrival of aromatase inhibitors, is due to its interfering with the estrogen receptor, rather than inhibiting estrogen production. Letrozole is approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of local or metastatic breast cancer that is hormone receptor positive or has an unknown receptor status in postmenopausal women. Side effects include signs and symptoms of hypoestrogenism. There is concern that long term use may lead to osteoporosis, which is why prescriptions of Letrozole are often accompanied by prescriptions of osteoporosis-fighting medication such as Fosamax. Letrozole has shown to reduce estrogen levels by 98 percent while raising testosterone levels. The anti-estrogen action of letrozole is preferred by athletes and bodybuilders for use during a steroid cycle to reduce bloating due to excess water retention and prevent the formation of gynecomastia related breast tissue that is a side effect of some anabolic steroids. Usage above 2.5 mg/day is known to potentially temporarily kill sex drive. Above 5mg/day for extended periods may cause kidney problems. Letrozole has also been shown to delay the fusing of the growth plates in adolescents. This may boost the effectiveness of growth hormone, and thus Letrozole is used to treat adolescents and children with short stature.
2,4,6-Tribromophenol is found in crustaceans. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol is isolated from molluscs and crustaceans. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol is a flavour component of seafood, imparts an intense shrimp-like flavour. 2,4,6-Tribromophenol belongs to the family of Bromobenzenes. These are organic compounds containing a chlorine atom attached to a benzene ring.
Phenylacetaldehyde is one important oxidation-related aldehyde. Exposure to styrene gives phenylacetaldehyde as a secondary metabolite. Styrene has been implicated as reproductive toxicant, neurotoxicant, or carcinogen in vivo or in vitro. Phenylacetaldehyde could be formed by diverse thermal reactions during the cooking process together with C8 compounds is identified as a major aroma- active compound in cooked pine mushroom. Phenylacetaldehyde is readily oxidized to phenylacetic acid. Therefore will eventually be hydrolyzed and oxidized to yield phenylacetic acid that will be excreted primarily in the urine in conjugated form. (A7898, A7899, A7900). Phenylacetaldehyde is an aromatic compound found in buckwheat, chocolate and many other foods and flowers. It is also responsible for the antibiotic activity of maggot therapy and it is also a compound that is added to cigarettes to improve their aroma.
An aromatase inhibitor that produces a state of 'medical' adrenalectomy by blocking the production of adrenal steroids. It also blocks the conversion of androgens to estrogens. Aminoglutethimide has been used in the treatment of advanced breast and prostate cancer. It was formerly used for its weak anticonvulsant properties.
Oxybenzone is an organic compound used in sunscreens. It is a derivative of benzophenone. It forms colorless crystals that are readily soluble in most organic solvents. It is used as an ingredient in sunscreen and other cosmetics because it absorbs UV-A ultraviolet rays.
A phthalic indicator dye that appears yellow-green in normal tear film and bright green in a more alkaline medium, such as the aqueous humor, and is used therapeutically as a diagnostic aid in corneal injuries and corneal trauma. It has been approved by FDA for use in externally applied drugs and cosmetics.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol. These decreases occur primarily in the VLDL fraction and less frequently in the LDL fraction. Gemfibrozil increases HDL subfractions HDL2 and HDL3 as well as apolipoproteins A-I and A-II. Its mechanism of action has not been definitely established.
N-Butyl benzenesulfonamide (NBBS), a plasticizer used commercially in the polymerization of polyamide compounds. It is neurotoxic and has been found to induce spastic myelopathy in rabbits.
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid. It is a component of many common vegetable oils and is important to human nutrition.
A potent lipoxygenase inhibitor that interferes with arachidonic acid metabolism. The compound also inhibits formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase, carboxylesterase, and cyclooxygenase to a lesser extent. It also serves as an antioxidant in fats and oils.
Cetyl-Trimethyl-Ammonium, Cetrimonium, cetyl trimethylammonium, or hexadecyltrimethylammonium is a quaternary ammonium cation whose bromide and chloride salts are used as antiseptics.
Phenanthroline is a heterocyclic organic compound. 1,10-Phenanthroline is an inhibitor of metallopeptidases, especially carboxypeptidase A. Inhibition of the enzyme occurs by removal and chelation of the metal ion required for catalytic activity, leaving an inactive apoenzyme. 1,10-Phenanthroline targets mainly zinc metallopeptidases, with a much lower affinity for calcium metallopeptidases.
A compound obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves, and also prepared synthetically. It has bacteriostatic, fungicidal, and keratolytic actions. Its salts, the salicylates, are used as analgesics.
Nutritional factor found in milk, eggs, malted barley, liver, kidney, heart, and leafy vegetables. The richest natural source is yeast. It occurs in the free form only in the retina of the eye, in whey, and in urine; its principal forms in tissues and cells are as flavin mononucleotide and flavin-adenine dinucleotide.
Bicalutamide is an oral non-steroidal anti-androgen for prostate cancer. It binds to the androgen receptor.
Indene is a flammable polycyclic hydrocarbon. It is composed of a benzene ring fused with a cyclopentene ring. This aromatic liquid is colorless although samples often are pale yellow. The principal industrial use of indene is in the production of indene/coumarone thermoplastic resins.
An orally active testosterone 5-alpha-reductase inhibitor. It is used as a surgical alternative for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia.
A dye that is a mixture of violet rosanilinis with antibacterial, antifungal, and anthelmintic properties.
CP-122721, neurokinin 1 (NK1) antagonist is developed by Pfizer to treat depression, emesis, and inflammatory diseases including asthma and irritable bowel syndrome.
Ilepatril is a dual angiotensin-converting enzyme and neutral endopeptidase inhibitor, for the treatment of hypertension and diabetic nephropathy.
3,4-Dimethylphenol is found in coffee and coffee products. 3,4-Dimethylphenol is present in coffee. 3,4-Dimethylphenol is a flavouring ingredient. 3,4-Dimethylphenol belongs to the family of Meta Cresols. These are aromatic compounds containing a meta-cresol moiety, which consists of a benzene ring bearing a methyl group and an hydroxyl group at ring positions 1 and 3, respectively.
Potent activator of the adenylate cyclase system and the biosynthesis of cyclic AMP. From the plant Coleus forskohlii. Has antihypertensive, positive ionotropic, platelet aggregation inhibitory, and smooth muscle relaxant activities; also lowers intraocular pressure and promotes release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
Ethylphosphate is produced by the reaction between diethylphosphate and water, with ethanol as a byproduct.
1-Octen-3-ol, also known as mushroom alcohol is a chemical that attracts biting insects such as mosquitos. It is contained in human breath and sweat, and it was once believed that the insect repellent DEET works by blocking the insects' octenol odorant receptors. Octenol is used, sometimes in combination with carbon dioxide, to attract insects in order to kill them with certain electronic devices. Its odor has been described as green and moldy or meaty; it is used in certain perfumes. In an animal study, octenol has been found to disrupt dopamine homeostasis and may be an environmental agent involved in parkinsonism.
Glycoluril is a nitrogenous substance obtained by the reduction of allantoin.  Glycoluril can be used to make Cucurbiturils. Cucurbiturils are macrocyclic molecules made of glycoluril (=C4H2N4O2=) monomers linked by methylene bridges. They have been used by chemists for various applications, including drug delivery, asymmetric synthesis, molecular switching, and dye tuning.
Octyl gallate is an antioxidant used in margarine

Octyl gallate has been shown to exhibit anti-viral function (A7906).
17a-estradiol is found in the estrogen patch. The estrogen patch is a delivery system for estradiol used as hormone replacement therapy to treat the symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness, and to prevent osteoporosis. Originally marketed as Vivelle (Novartis), it was discontinued in 2003 and reintroduced in a smaller form as Vivelle-Dot. Although the estrogen is given transdermally rather than in the standard oral tablets, the estrogen patch carries similar risks and benefits as more conventional forms of estrogen-only hormone replacement therapy.
Triethyl citrate is used in foods as a flavouring agent, solvent and surface-active agent Triethyl citrate is an ester of citric acid. It is a colorless, odorless liquid used as a food additive (E number E1505) to stabilize foams, especially as whipping aid for egg white. In pharmaceutical coatings and plastics.

Triethyl citrate belongs to the family of Tricarboxylic Acids and Derivatives. These are organic compounds containing three carboxylic acid groups (or salt/ester derivatives thereof).
Metenamine belongs to the family of Aminals. These are organic compounds containing the aminal functional group.

Metenamine is an antimicrobial food preservative, but is of limited use and usage is declining. It is used to prevent "late blowing" of hard cheese by inhibiting growth of unwanted bacteria. Presently (2002) its European use is limited to one type of Italian cheese, Provolone. It acts by releasing formaldehyde under acidic conditions.
Triethanolamine is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Triethanolamine belongs to the family of Alkylamines. These are organic compounds containing an alkylamine group.
Environmental pollutant arising from the degradation of nonionic surfactants in sewage Nonoxynol-9, one of the APEs, is used as a surfactant in cleaning and cosmetic products, and as a spermicide in contraceptives. Nonylphenol is an organic compound of the wider family of alkylphenols. It is a product of industrial synthesis formed during the alkylation process of phenols, particularly in the synthesis of polyethoxylate detergents. Because of their man-made origins, nonylphenols are classified as xenobiotics. In nonylphenols, a hydrocarbon chain of nine carbon atoms is attached to the phenol ring in either the ortho (2), meta (3), or para (4) position, with the most common ring isomers being ortho or para (e.g. figure 1 para-nonylphenol). Moreover, the alkyl chains can exist as either linear n-alkyl chains, or complex branched chains. Nonylphenol is commonly obtained as a mixture of isomers, and is thus usually found as a pale yellow liquid at room temperature with a freezing point of -10Â°C and a boiling point of 295-320Â°C. However, pure isomers of nonylphenol crystallize readily at room temperatures and for example, para-n-nonylphenol, forms white crystals at room temperature. Nonylphenol, and a related compound tert-octylphenol, were first detected as an air pollutant in New York City and New Jersey, probably due to its evaporation from the Hudson river and other smaller rivers in the region that routinely receive municipal wastewaters. It is possible that the atmosphere is a destructive sink for nonylphenol as it is probably reactive with atmospheric radicals and/or is photoactive.
Neryl acetate is found in cardamom. Neryl acetate is found in citrus, kumquat and pummelo peel oils, ginger, cardamon, clary sage, myrtle leaf and myrtle berries. Neryl acetate is a flavouring agent. 

Geranyl acetate belongs to the family of Fatty Alcohol Esters. These are ester derivatives of a fatty alcohol.
beta-Geraniol is found in almond. beta-Geraniol is found in free state and as esters in many essential oils including geranium oil. Most prolific natural source is palmarosa oil. beta-Geraniol is a flavouring agent. Geraniol is a monoterpenoid and an alcohol. It is the primary part of rose oil, palmarosa oil, and citronella oil (Java type). It also occurs in small quantities in geranium, lemon, and many other essential oils. It has a rose-like odor and is commonly used in perfumes. It is used in flavors such as peach, raspberry, grapefruit, red apple, plum, lime, orange, lemon, watermelon, pineapple, and blueberry. It is the isomer of nerol. (Wikipedia) 

beta-Geraniol belongs to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
Isoamyl butyrate is found in alcoholic beverages. Isoamyl butyrate is present in fruit aromas, e.g. apricot, melon, mango etc. Also present in wines, eucalyptus oil and coconut oil. Isoamyl butyrate is used in fruit flavours.
Propylene glycol mono- and diesters of fats and fatty acids is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Propylene glycol mono- and diesters of fats and fatty acids belongs to the family of Fatty Acid Esters. These are carboxylic ester derivatives of a fatty acid.
Dimethylethanolamine is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Dimethylethanolamine belongs to the family of Alkylamines. These are organic compounds containing an alkylamine group.
Dibutyl decanedioate is a flavouring ingredient used in fruit food flavouring.
(2E,4E)-2,4-Hexadienoic acid is a preservative for many foodstuffs. Generally used as K salt or (less frequently) as Ca salt. (2E,4E)-2,4-Hexadienoic acid is an antimicrobial agent against a wide variety of microorganisms, especially yeasts and moulds. (2E,4E)-2,4-Hexadienoic acid is a preservative action more efficient in acidic foods. Typical usage levels 500-2000 ppm

(2E,4E)-2,4-Hexadienoic acid belongs to the family of Unsaturated Fatty Acids. These are fatty acids whose chain contains at least one CC double bond.
Glutaral is used as an antimicrobial agent in sugar mills and as a fixing agent in the immobilisation of glucose isomerase enzyme preparations for use in the manufacture of high fructose corn syrup A polymerized isomer of glutaraldehyde known as polycycloglutaracetal is a fertilizer for aquatic plants. It is claimed that it provides a bioavailable source of carbon for higher plants that is not available to algae. Though not marketed as such due to federal regulations, the biocidal effect of glutaraldehyde kills most algae at concentrations of 0.5 - 5.0 ppm. These levels are not harmful to most aquatic fauna and flora. Adverse reactions have been observed by some aquarists at these concentrations in some aquatic mosses, liverworts, and vascular plants. Glutaraldehyde is a colorless liquid with a pungent odor used to disinfect medical and dental equipment. It is also used for industrial water treatment and as a chemical preservative. Glutaraldehyde is an oily liquid at room temperature (density 1.06 g/mL), and miscible with water, alcohol, and benzene. It is used as a tissue fixative in electron microscopy. It is employed as an embalming fluid, is a component of leather tanning solutions, and occurs as an intermediate in the production of certain industrial chemicals. Glutaraldehyde is frequently used in biochemistry applications as an amine-reactive homobifunctional crosslinker. The oligomeric state of proteins can be examined through this application. However, it is toxic, causing severe eye, nose, throat and lung irritation, along with headaches, drowsiness and dizziness. It is a main source of occupational asthma among health care providers. Glutaral has been shown to exhibit antibiotic function (A7907). Glutaral belongs to the family of Aldehydes. These are organic compounds containing the aldehyde functional group.
Diethanolamine, often abbreviated as DEA, is an organic chemical compound which is both a secondary amine and a dialcohol. A dialcohol has two hydroxyl groups in its molecule. Like other amines, diethanolamine acts as a weak base. Diethanolamine is widely used in the preparation of diethanolamides and diethanolamine salts of long-chain fatty acids that are formulated into soaps and surfactants used in liquid laundry and dishwashing detergents, cosmetics, shampoos, and hair conditioners. Diethanolamine is also used in textile processing, in industrial gas purification to remove acid gases, as an anticorrosion agent in metalworking fluids, and in preparations of agricultural chemicals. Aqueous diethanolamine solutions are used as solvents for numerous drugs that are administered intravenously.
Methyl dodecanoate is found in alcoholic beverages. Methyl dodecanoate is found in concord grape (Vitis labrusca), melon, pineapple, heated blackberry, red chilli (Capsicum frutescens) and other fruits. Also present in cheeses, hop oil, white wine, spirits and other foodstuffs. Methyl dodecanoate is a flavouring agent. 

Methyl dodecanoate belongs to the family of Fatty Acid Esters. These are carboxylic ester derivatives of a fatty acid.
Undecylenic acid is found in black elderberry. Undecylenic acid is a flavouring ingredient.
Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate is found in beverages. Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate is present in white wine, tea, porcini mushroom Boletus edulis, Bourbon vanilla, clary sage, red sage and fruits including cherry, apple, raspberry, papaya and plum. Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate is found in leaves of Gaultheria procumbens (wintergreen). Methyl 2-hydroxybenzoate is a flavouring agent.
Vanillin is the primary component of the extract of the vanilla bean. Synthetic vanillin, instead of natural vanilla extract, is sometimes used as a flavouring agent in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. It is used by the food industry as well as ethylvanillin.Artificial vanilla flavoring is a solution of pure vanillin, usually of synthetic origin. Because of the scarcity and expense of natural vanilla extract, there has long been interest in the synthetic preparation of its predominant component. The first commercial synthesis of vanillin began with the more readily available natural compound eugenol. Today, artificial vanillin is made from either guaiacol or from lignin, a constituent of wood which is a byproduct of the paper industry. (Wiki).
Propyl gallate is found in corn. Propyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially animal fats and vegetable oils. Synergistic with other antioxidants such as Butylated hydroxyanisole <ht>DNB28-K</ht> and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol <ht>HCH42-H</ht>. Especially effective with polyunsaturated fats. Indirect food additive arising from paper or board packaging, adhesives and food contact polymers Propyl gallate is an anti-oxidant. It protects against oxidation by hydrogen peroxide and oxygen free radicals, in a catalytic manner similar to superoxide dismutase. Propyl gallate, or propyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate is an ester formed by the condensation of gallic acid and propanol. It is an antioxidant added to foods containing oils and fats to prevent oxidation.[citation needed] As a food additive, it is used under the E number E310.

Propyl gallate has been shown to exhibit pro-oxidant and radical scavenger functions (A7908, A7909).
Isopentyl acetate is found in apple. Isopentyl acetate is present in many fruit aromas, especially banana. Isopentyl acetate is used in banana flavouring. Isoamyl acetate has a strong odor (similar to Juicy Fruit or a pear drop) which is also described as similar to both banana and pear. Banana oil is a term that is applied either to pure isoamyl acetate or to flavorings that are mixtures of isoamyl acetate, amyl acetate, nitrocellulose and other flavors. Pear oil commonly refers to a solution of isoamyl acetate in ethanol that is used as an artificial flavor. Isoamyl acetate, also known as isopentyl acetate, is an organic compound that is the ester formed from isoamyl alcohol and acetic acid. It is a clear colorless liquid that is only slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in most organic solvents.

Isopentyl acetate belongs to the family of Carboxylic Acid Esters. These are carboxylic acid derivatives in which the carbo atom from the carbonyl group is atached to an alkyl or oaryl moiety through an oxygen atom (forming an ester group).
Red food colouring The source of this color is a picture of a "deep carmine pink" flower at the following website:; The source of this color is a watercolor color swatch called light carmine displayed at the following website:.

Carmine red belongs to the family of Anthraquinone Glycosides. These are organic compounds containing an anthraquinone moiety glycosidically bound to a carbohydrate moiety.
(±)-(E)-3-Methyl-4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-buten-2-one is a flavouring ingredient

3-Methyl-4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-buten-2-one belongs to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
Sorbitan oleate is an emulsifier and clarification agent in food preparations (sugar liquor or juice) 

Sorbitan oleate belongs to the family of Pentoses. These are monosaccharides in which the carbohydrate moiety contains five carbon atoms.
Hexylresorcinol is a food additive for prevention of enzymic browning in shrimp and fruits

Hexylresorcinol belongs to the family of Resorcinols. These are compounds containing a resorcinol moiety, which is a benzene ring bearing two hydrocyl groups at positions 1 and 3.
2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is found in fruits. 2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione is a constituent of cranberries.

2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione belongs to the family of Benzothiazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-member ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom).
Acid yellow 23 is a colour additive for desserts, candies, preserves, beverages, prepared meats and canned and frozen vegetables. It is a putative food allergen.
2-tert-Butyl-1,4-benzenediol is found in fats and oils. 2-tert-Butyl-1,4-benzenediol is an antioxidant used in food, e.g. oils and fats. Polym. inhibitor

2-tert-Butyl-1,4-benzenediol belongs to the family of Cumenes. These are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety.
Colour additive used in gelatins, puddings, custards, beverages, sauces, toppings, fruits, dairy products, bakery products, jams, jellies, condiments, meat and poultry Allura Red AC is a red azo dye that goes by several names including: Allura Red, Food Red 17, C.I. 16035, FD&amp;C Red 40, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, 6-hydroxy-5-((2-methoxy-5-methyl-4-sulfophenyl)azo)-, disodium salt, and disodium 6-hydroxy-5-((2-methoxy-5-methyl-4-sulfophenyl)azo)-2-naphthalene-sulfonate. It is used as a food dye and has the E number E129. Allura Red AC was originally introduced in the United States as a replacement for the use of amaranth as a food coloring. Allura Red AC is one of many High Production Volume Chemicals. Some manufacturers of Allura Red AC include: Asim Products, Sanchi Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., and Warner-Jenkinson Europe Ltd. Upon its introduction into the market, there were fears that Allura Red AC was carcinogenic; however, studies have since shown that this is not the case.[citation needed] The initial reports of its consumption causing tumors have since been shown to have been caused by the presence of para-cresidine.[citation needed] Although para-cresidine is an important reactant in the manufacture of Allura Red AC and is a known carcinogen, further studies conducted since have found no trace of para-cresidine to be present in food-grade Allura Red AC.[citation needed].
Industrial biocide. 1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one is present in can-end cements

1,2-Benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one belongs to the family of Benzothiazoles. These are organic compounds containing a benzene fused to a thiazole ring (a five-member ring with four carbon atoms, one nitrogen atom and one sulfur atom).
Disodium 6-hydroxy-5-[(4-sulfophenyl)azo]-2-naphthalenesulfonate is a food dye<br /> Disodium 6-hydroxy-5-[(4-sulfophenyl)azo]-2-naphthalenesulfonate belongs to the family of Naphthalenes. These are compounds containing a naphthalene moiety, which consists of two fused benzene rings.
Cetyl alcohol, also known as 1-hexadecanol and palmityl alcohol, is a solid organic compound and a member of the alcohol class of compounds. Its chemical formula is CH3(CH2)15OH. At room temperature, cetyl alcohol takes the form of a waxy white solid or flakes. It belongs to the group of fatty alcohols. With the demise of commercial whaling, cetyl alcohol is no longer primarily produced from whale oil, but instead either as an end-product of the petroleum industry, or produced from vegetable oils such as palm oil and coconut oil. Production of cetyl alcohol from palm oil gives rise to one of its alternative names, palmityl alcohol.
Erioglaucine A disodium salt is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").
Sodium dehydroacetate is used as a preservative for cut or peeled squash.
Citral is found in carrot. Citral, or 3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadienal or lemonal, is either of, or a mixture of, a pair of terpenoids with the molecular formula C10H16O. The two compounds are double bond isomers. The E-isomer is known as geranial or citral A. The Z-isomer is known as neral or citral B. Citral has been shown to exhibit apoptotic, anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory functions (A7910, A7911, A7912). Citral belongs to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
2,6-Dimethylphenol is found in alcoholic beverages. 2,6-Dimethylphenol is present in whisky and coffee. 2,6-Dimethylphenol is a flavouring ingredient

2,6-Dimethylphenol belongs to the family of Ortho Cresols. These are organic compounds containing an ortho-cresol moiety, which consists of a benzene bearing one hydroxyl group at ring positions 1 and 2, respectively.
Terminal metabolite of Alachlor <ht>DKW79-G</ht> in soil and animals.
Dimethyl adipate is a solvent and diluent for flavouring agents [CCD].
Trichloroacetic acid (TCA; also known as trichloroethanoic acid) is an analogue of acetic acid in which the three hydrogen atoms of the methyl group have all been replaced by chlorine atoms.
Acetyl tributyl citrate is a flavouring ingredient and plasticiser used in packaging films for food.
Tartaric acid is a white crystalline organic acid. It occurs naturally in many plants, particularly grapes and tamarinds, and is one of the main acids found in wine. It is added to other foods to give a sour taste, and is used as an antioxidant. Salts of tartaric acid are known as tartrates. It is a dihydroxy derivative of dicarboxylic acid. Tartaric acid is a muscle toxin, which works by inhibiting the production of malic acid, and in high doses causes paralysis and death. The minimum recorded fatal dose for a human is about 12 grams. In spite of that, it is included in many foods, especially sour-tasting sweets. As a food additive, tartaric acid is used as an antioxidant with E number E334, tartrates are other additives serving as antioxidants or emulsifiers. Naturally-occurring tartaric acid is chiral, meaning that it has molecules that are non-superimposable on their mirror-images. It is a useful raw material in organic chemistry for the synthesis of other chiral molecules. The naturally occurring form of the acid is L-(+)-tartaric acid or dextrotartaric acid. The mirror-image (enantiomeric) form, levotartaric acid or D-(-)-tartaric acid, and the achiral form, mesotartaric acid, can be made artificially. Tartarate is believed to play a role in inhibiting kidney stone formation. Most tartarate that is consumed by humans is metabolized by bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract -- primarily in the large instestine. Only about 15-20% of consumed tartaric acid is secreted in the urine unchanged.
Acaricide and weed killer

(±)-2-(1-Methylpropyl)-4,6-dinitrophenol belongs to the family of Nitrophenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a nitrophenol moiety, which consists of a benzene ring bearing both an hydroxyl group and a nitro group on two different ring carbon atoms.
Ethoxyquin is an antioxidant used in animal feeds and for the preservation of colour in the production of chili powder, paprika and ground chilli. Ethoxyquin is formerly used as an agricultural pesticide/herbicide, now superseded. Also used as a post-harvest dip for apples and pears to prevent scald.
Methyleugenol is found in allspice. Methyleugenol is present in many essential oils, e.g. nutmeg, mace and also many fruits, e.g. apple, banana, orange juice or peel, grapefruit, bilberry

Methyleugenol has been shown to exhibit anti-nociceptive function (A7914).

Methyleugenol belongs to the family of Anisoles. These are organic compounds contaiing a methoxybenzene or a derivative thereof.
1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene is a colorless liquid with chemical formula C9H12. It is a flammable aromatic hydrocarbon with a strong odor. It occurs naturally in coal tar and petroleum (about 3%). It is nearly insoluble in water, but well-soluble in ethanol, diethyl ether, and benzene.
2,6-di-tert-butylphenol is an organic compound with the structural formula 2,6-((CH3)3C)2C6H3OH. This colourless solid alkylated phenol and its derivatives are used industrially as UV stabilizer and an antioxidant for hydrocarbon-based products ranging from petrochemicals to plastics. Illustrative of its usefulness, it prevents gumming in aviation fuels.
Eugenol is an allyl chain-substituted guaiacol, i.e. 2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)phenol. Eugenol is a member of the allylbenzene class of chemical compounds. It is a clear to pale yellow oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove oil, nutmeg, cinnamon, and bay leaf. It is slightly soluble in water and soluble in organic solvents. It has a pleasant, spicy, clove-like odor. Eugenol is used in perfumeries, flavorings, essential oils and in medicine as a local antiseptic and anaesthetic. It was used in the production of isoeugenol for the manufacture of vanillin, though most vanillin is now produced from petrochemicals or from by-products of paper manufacture (Wikipedia).
Isoeugenol is is a clear to pale yellow oily liquid extracted from certain essential oils especially from clove oil and cinnamon. It is very slightly soluble in water and soluble in organic solvents. It has a spicy odor and taste of clove. Isoeugenol is prepared from eugenol by heating. Eugenol is used in perfumeries, flavorings, essential oils and in medicine (local antiseptic and analgesic). It is used in the production of isoeugenol for the manufacture of vanillin. Eugenol derivatives or methoxyphenol derivatives in wider classification are used in perfumery and flavoring. They are used in formulating insect attractants and UV absorbers, analgesics, biocides and antiseptics. They are also used in manufacturing stabilizers and antioxidants for plastics and rubbers. Isoeugenol is used in manufacturing perfumeries, flavorings, essential oils (odor description: Clove, spicy, sweet, woody) and in medicine (local antiseptic and analgesic) as well as vanillin. (A7915).
4-tert-Butylphenol is found in herbs and spices. 4-tert-Butylphenol is found in oregano. 4-tert-Butylphenol is a flavour ingredient.

4-tert-Butylphenol belongs to the family of Cumenes. These are aromatic compounds containing a prop-2-ylbenzene moiety.
Cymene, or p-cymene, is a naturally occurring aromatic organic compound. It is classified as a hydrocarbon related to a monoterpene. Its structure consists of a benzene ring para-substituted with a methyl group and an isopropyl group. It is insoluble in water, but miscible with ethanol and ether. Cymene is a constituent of a number of essential oils, most commonly the oil of cumin and thyme. There are two less common geometric isomers. o-Cymene, in which the alkyl groups are ortho-substituted, and m-cymene, in which they are meta-substituted. p-Cymene is the only natural isomer. Cymene is common ligand for ruthenium. The parent compound is [(&#951;6-cymene)MCl2]2. This [sandwich compound|half-sandwich compound is prepared by the reaction of ruthenium trichloride with the terpene &#945;-phellandrene. The osmium complex is also known (Wikipedia).
Sebacic acid is a saturated, straight-chain naturally occurring dicarboxylic acid with 10 carbon atoms. Sebacic acid is a normal urinary acid. In patients with multiple acyl-CoA-dehydrogenase deficiency (MADD) or glutaric aciduria type II (GAII) are a group of metabolic disorders due to deficiency of either electron transfer flavoprotein or electron transfer flavoprotein ubiquinone oxidoreductase, biochemical data shows an increase in urine sebacic acid excretion. Sebacic acid is a white flake or powdered crystal slightly soluble in water that has been proposed as an alternative energy substrate in total parenteral nutrition. Sebacic Acid was named from the Latin sebaceus (tallow candle) or sebum (tallow) in reference to its use in the manufacture of candles. Sebacic Acid and its derivatives such as azelaic acid have a variety of industrial uses as plasticizers, lubricants, hydraulic fluids, cosmetics, candles, etc. It is used in the synthesis of polyamide and alkyd resins. It is also used as an intermediate for aromatics, antiseptics and painting materials. (A7916, A7917, A7918, A7919).
2,6-Dimethyl-4-heptanone is a flavouring ingredient belonging to the family of Ketones. These are organic compounds in which a carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms R2C=O (neither R may be H).
2-Ethyl-1-hexanol sulfate is used as a food additive.
The phytoestrogen biochanin A is an isoflavone derivative isolated from red clover Trifolium pratense with anticarcinogenic properties. Treating MCF-7 human breast carcinoma cells with biochanin A alone caused the accumulation of CYP1A1 mRNA and an increase in CYP1A1-specific 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD) activity in a dose dependent manner. Biochanin A may be a natural ligand to bind on aryl hydrocarbon receptor acting as an antagonist/agonist of the pathway. (A7920). Biochanin A suppress nuclear factor-kappaB-driven interleukin-6 (IL6) expression. In addition to its physiologic immune function as an acute stress cytokine, sustained elevated expression levels of IL6 promote chronic inflammatory disorders, aging frailty, and tumorigenesis. (A7921). Biochanin A induces a decrease in invasive activity of U87MG cells in a dose-related manner. (A7922). Biochanin A activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR) PPARalpha, PPARgamma, and adipocyte differentiation in vitro of 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, suggesting potential value of isoflavones, especially biochanin A and their parent botanicals, as antidiabetic agents and for use in regulating lipid metabolism. (A7923).
Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Heptyl 4-hydroxybenzoate belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid.
Apigenin is a plant-derived flavonoid that has significant promise as a skin cancer chemopreventive agent. Apigenin inhibits the expression of involucrin (hINV), a marker of keratinocyte differentiation, is increased by differentiating agents via a protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta), Ras, MEKK1, MEK3 cascade that increases AP1 factor level and AP1 factor binding to DNA elements in the hINV promoter. Apigenin suppresses the 12-O-tetradeconylphorbol-13-acetate-dependent increase in AP1 factor expression and binding to the hINV promoter and the increase in hINV promoter activity. Apigenin also inhibits the increase in promoter activity observed following overexpression of PKCdelta, constitutively active Ras, or MEKK1. The suppression of PKCdelta activity is associated with reduced phosphorylation of PKCdelta-Y311. Activation of hINV promoter activity by the green tea polyphenol, (-)-epigellocathecin-3-gallate, is also inhibited by apigenin, suggesting that the two chemopreventive agents can produce opposing actions in keratinocytes. (A7924). Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. This flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin. (A7925). Apigenin markedly induces the expression of death receptor 5 (DR5) and synergistically acts with exogenous soluble recombinant human tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) to induce apoptosis in malignant tumor cells. On the other hand, apigenin-mediated induction of DR5 expression is not observed in normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Moreover, apigenin does not sensitize normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. (A7926).
Cinnamic acid has the formula C6H5CHCHCOOH and is an odorless white crystalline acid, which is slightly soluble in water. It has a melting point of 133 degree centigrade and a boiling point of 300 degree centigrade.
The terpinenes are three isomeric hydrocarbons that are classified as terpenes. Gamma-terpinene is one these three isomeric hydrocarbons. It is natural and has been isolated from a variety of plant sources (Wikipedia). It is a major component of essential oils made from Citrus Fruits and has strong antioxidant activity. It has a lemon odor and widely used in food, flavours, soaps, cosmetics, pharmaceutical, tabacco, confectionery and perfume industries (http://www.gyanflavoursexport.com).
Thiourea is an organic compound of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and hydrogen, with the formula CSN2H4 or (NH2)2CS. It is similar to urea, except that the oxygen atom is replaced by a sulfur atom. The properties of urea and thiourea differ significantly because of the relative electronegativities of sulfur and oxygen. Thiourea is a versatile reagent in organic synthesis. "Thioureas" refers to a broad class of compounds with the general structure (R1R2N)(R3R4N)C=S. Thioureas are related to thioamides, e.g. RC(S)NR2, where R is methyl, ethyl, etc. Thiourea is prohibited from use in food. Industrial uses of thiourea include production of flame retardant resins, and vulcanization accelerators. Thiourea is used as an auxiliary agent in diazo paper (light-sensitive photocopy paper) and almost all other types of copy paper. It is also used to tone silver-gelatin photographic prints. The liquid silver cleaning product TarnX is essentially a solution of thiourea. A leaching agent for gold leaching and silver leaching can be created by selectively oxidizing thiourea, bypassing the steps of cyanide use and smelting. Another common application for use of thiourea is a common sulfur source for making semiconductor cadmium sulfide nanoparticle. Thiourea is a planar molecule. The C=S bond distance is 1.60±0.1 for a wide range of derivatives. This narrow range indicates that the C=S bond is insensitive to the nature of the substitutent. Thus, the thioamide, which is similar to an amide group, is difficult to perturb. Thiourea reduces peroxides to the corresponding diols. The intermediate of the reaction is an unstable epidioxide which can only be identified at -100 &deg;C. Epidioxide is similar to epoxide except with two oxygen atoms. This intermediate reduces to diol by thiourea.

Thiourea has been shown to exhibit anti-viral, anti-fungal and radical scavenger functions (A7927, A7928, A7929).
2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is found in common buckwheat. 2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is present in cinnamon (Cinnamomum versum). 2-Hydroxybenzaldehyde is a flavouring ingredient.
5,7-Dihydroxyflavone is found in carrot. Chrysin is a naturally occurring flavone chemically extracted from the blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea). Honeycomb also contains small amounts. It is also reported in Oroxylum indicum or Indian trumpetflower. (Wikipedia).
4-Methyl-3-penten-2-one, 9CI is found in herbs and spices. 4-Methyl-3-penten-2-one, 9CI is a flavouring ingredient. 4-Methyl-3-penten-2-one, 9CI is a constituent  of Capsicum species, Osmanthus fragrans (sweet osmanthus) and other plants

4-methyl-3-penten-2-one, 9ci belongs to the family of Acryloyl Compounds. These are organic compounds containing the acryloyl functional group (which has the core fragment but-3-en-2-one).
4-Acetyl-6-tert-butyl-1,1-dimethylindane is a flavouring ingredient

4-acetyl-6-tert-butyl-1,1-dimethylindane belongs to the family of Acetophenones. These are organic compounds containing the acetophenone structure.
Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid, is a mineral acid with the chemical formula H3PO4. Alternatively, orthophosphoric acid molecules can combine with themselves to form a variety of compounds referred to as phosphoric acids in a more general way. For a discussion of these, see Phosphoric acids and Phosphates. Appears to exist only as a food additive and produced synthetically. --Wikipedia.
Benzyl cinnamate is found in cumin. Benzyl cinnamate is isolated from various plant species. Benzyl cinnamate is present in Sumatra and Penang benzoin, Peru and tolu balsams, main constituent of copaiba balsam. Benzyl cinnamate is a flavouring agent.
Being bifunctional, chloroacetaldehyde is a versatile precursor to many heterocyclic compounds. It condenses with thiourea derivatives to give aminothiazoles. This reaction was once important as a precursor to sulfathiazole, one of the first sulfa drugs. Chloroacetaldehyde is the organic compound with the formula ClCH2CHO. Like some related compounds, it is highly electrophilic reagent and a potentially dangerous alkylating agent. The compound is not normally encountered in the anhydrous form, but rather as the hydrate (acetal), ClCH2CH(OH)2. Chloroacetaldehyde is a useful intermediate in the synthesis, e.g. of 2-aminothiazole or many pharmaceutical compounds. Another use is to facilitate bark removal from tree trunks.
5-Methyl-2-hexanone is found in animal foods. 5-Methyl-2-hexanone is a volatile component in fruit pulp of papaya (Carica papaya), black tea aroma and in cooked beef and egg aroma

5-Methyl-2-hexanone belongs to the family of Ketones. These are organic compounds in which a carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms R2C=O (neither R may be H) [1]. (Reference: [1] IUPAC. Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book"). Compiled by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford (1997). XML on-line corrected version: http://goldbook.iupac.org (2006-) created by M. Nic, J. Jirat, B. Kosata; updates compiled by A. Jenkins. ISBN 0-9678550-9-8. doi:10.1351/goldbook. (PAC, 1995, 67, 1307 (Glossary of class names of organic compounds and reactivity intermediates based on structure (IUPAC Recommendations 1995)) on page 1346)).
1-Hexanol is an organic alcohol with a six carbon chain and a condensed structural formula of CH3(CH2)5OH. This colorless liquid is slightly soluble in water, but miscible with ether and ethanol. Two additional straight chain isomers of 1-hexanol exist, 2-hexanol and 3-hexanol, both of which differ by the location of the hydroxyl group. Many isomeric alcohols have the formula C6H13OH. 1-hexanol is believed to be a component of the odour of freshly mown grass. It is used in the perfume industry.
Constituent of ion-exchange resins for use in food processing, e.g. in the production of grapefruit juice Diethylenetriamine (DETA) is a colourless hygroscopic liquid, soluble in water and hydrocarbons. Diethylenetriamine is an analogue of diethylene glycol. It has similar chemical behavior as ethylene diamine and has similar uses. It is a weak base and its aqueous solution is alkaline. It is used in oil industry, as a solvent for sulfur and extraction of acid gas.

Diethylenetriamine has been shown to exhibit diuretic function (A7930).

Diethylenetriamine belongs to the family of Polyamines. These are compounds containing more than one amine group.
Methyl linoleate is found in cloves. Methyl linoleate is a mixture with <ht>CNB89-S</ht> (*FEMA 3411*) is used as a flavouring ingredient

Methyl linoleate belongs to the family of Lineolic Acids and Derivatives. These are derivatives of lineolic acid.
Linalyl acetate is found in cardamom. Linalyl acetate is isolated from numerous plants and essential oils, e.g. clary sage, lavender, lemon etc. Linalyl acetate is a flavouring ingredient Linalyl acetate is a naturally-occurring phytochemical found in many flowers and spice plants. It is one of the principal components of the essential oils of bergamot and lavender. Chemically, it is the acetate ester of linalool, and the two often occur in conjunction.
Dodecyl gallate is an antioxidant used in foods especially oil, fats, cheeses and mashed potato. Dodecyl gallate is a permitted for use in margarine in USA. Possesses same antioxidant effects as propyl gallate but incr. alkyl chain length gives rise to greater fat solubility.
Phenyl salicylate is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Phenyl salicylate belongs to the family of Hydroxybenzoic Acid Derivatives. These are compounds containing an hydroxybenzoic acid (or a derivative), which is a benzene ring bearing a carboxylic acid.
(±)-Benzoin is a flavouring ingredient.Benzoin is an organic compound with the formula PhCH(OH)C(O)Ph. It is a hydroxy ketone attached to two phenyl groups. It appears as off-white crystals, with a light camphor-like odor. Benzoin is synthesized from benzaldehyde in the benzoin condensation. It is chiral and it exists as a pair of enantiomers: (R)-benzoin and (S)-benzoin. (Wikipedia) 

Benzoin belongs to the family of Benzoins. These are organic compounds containing a 1,2-hydroxy ketone attached to two phenyl groups.
4,5-Dichloro-3H-1,3-dithiol-2-one is a fda approved slimicide for use in food-contact paper and paperboard.
2-Pentyl-3-phenyl-2-propenal is a flavouring ingredient

2-pentyl-3-phenyl-2-propenal belongs to the family of Cinnamaldehydes. These are organic aromatic compounds containing a cinnamlaldehyde moiety, consisting of a benzene and an aldehyde group to form 3-phenylprop-2-enal.
Benzylideneacetone is a flavouring ingredient. Benzylideneacetone is present in hydrolysed soy protein

Benzylideneacetone belongs to the family of Phenylpropenes. These are compounds containing a phenylpropene moeity, which consists of a propene substituent bound to a phenyl group.
Retinol acetate is a dietary supplement, permitted in infant formulas

Retinol acetate belongs to the family of Retinoids. These are compounds that is related to vitamin A, especially retinol.
2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol is also known as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or butylhydroxytoluene, is a lipophilic (fat-soluble) organic compound that is primarily used as an antioxidant food additive (E number E321) as well as an antioxidant additive in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, jet fuels, rubber, petroleum products, electrical transformer oil, and embalming fluid. It is also found in certain plants, including soft-necked garlic. A recent study has found that phytoplankton, including the green algae, Botryococcus braunii, as well as three different cyanobacteria (Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Microcystis aeruginosa and Oscillatoria sp.) are capable of producing this compound.
Antioxidant.Ascorbyl palmitate is an ester formed from ascorbic acid and palmitic acid creating a fat-soluble form of vitamin C. In addition to its use as a source of vitamin C, it is also used as an antioxidant food additive (E number E304). Oral supplements of ascorbyl palmitate are less effective, due to the substance breaking down again into its components before being digested. Ascorbyl palmitate is also marketed as "vitamin C ester.

Ascorbyl palmitate has been shown to exhibit pro-oxidant function (A7931).
Butyl lactate is a flavouring agent.
Fd&c red no. 3 is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").<br /> Fd&c red no. 3 belongs to the family of Xanthenes. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a xanthene moiety, which consists of two benzene ring joined to each other by a pyran ring.
gamma-Cyclodextrin is a stabiliser, emulsifier, carrier and formulation aid. Generally recognised as safe (GRAS) in the USA.

gamma-Cyclodextrin belongs to the family of Hexoses. These are monosaccharides in which the sugar unit is a hexose.
FDA permitted food colourant used in beverages, desserts, candies, baking goods, dairy products and maraschino cherries Fast Green FCF, also called Food green 3, FD&amp;C Green No. 3, Green 1724, Solid Green FCF, and C.I. 42053, is a sea green triarylmethane food dye. Its E number is E143.
Polypropylene glycol (m w 1,200-3,000) is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Polypropylene glycol (m w 1,200-3,000) belongs to the family of Secondary Alcohols. These are compounds containing a secondary alcohol functional group, with the general structure HOC(R)(R') (R,R'=alkyl, aryl).
Isobornyl propionate is a flavouring agent.
Ethyl 2Z,4E-decadienoic acid is a flavouring material.
Paraoxon is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. It is an organophosphate oxon, and the active metabolite of the insecticide parathion. It is also used as an opthamological drug against glaucoma. Paraoxon is one of the most potent acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides available, around 70% as potent as the nerve agent sarin, and so is now rarely used as an insecticide due to the risk of poisoning to humans and other animals. It is easily absorbed through skin, and was used as an assassination weapon by the apartheid-era South African chemical weapons program Project Coast.
Insecticide, interfering with chitin deposition by oral absorption. Diflubenzuron is used on soya beans, citrus, tea, vegetables and mushrooms. Also used as an insecticide in feed for poultry and pigs and as a controlled release bolus in cattle



Diflubenzuron belongs to the family of N-Phenylureas. These are compounds containing a N-phenylurea moiety, which is structurally characterized by a phenyl group linked to one nitrogen atom of an urea group.
2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-ethylphenol is found in fruits. 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-ethylphenol is reported as a constituent of mango and green tea leaves.
Colourant ormerly used in foodstuffs.
Quercetin is a flavonoid that forms the "backbone" for many other flavonoids, including the citrus flavonoids rutin, hesperidin, naringin and tangeritin. In studies, quercetin is found to be the most active of the flavonoids, and many medicinal plants owe much of their activity to their high quercetin content. Quercetin has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity because of direct inhibition of several initial processes of inflammation. For example, it inhibits both the manufacture and release of histamine and other allergic/inflammatory mediators. In addition, it exerts potent antioxidant activity and vitamin C-sparing action.
Xylose or wood sugar is an aldopentose - a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms and an aldehyde functional group. It has chemical formula C5H10O5 and is 40% as sweet as sucrose. Xylose is found in the embryos of most edible plants. The polysaccharide xylan, which is closely associated with cellulose, consists practically entirely of d-xylose. Corncobs, cottonseed hulls, pecan shells, and straw contain considerable amounts of this sugar. Xylose is also found in mucopolysaccharides of connective tissue and sometimes in the urine. Xylose is the first sugar added to serine or threonine residues during proteoglycan type O-glycosylation. Therefore xylose is involved in the biosythetic pathways of most anionic polysaccharides such as heparan sulphate and chondroitin sulphate. In medicine, xylose is used to test for malabsorption by administering a xylose solution to the patient after fasting. If xylose is detected in the blood and/or urine within the next few hours, it has been absorbed by the intestines. Xylose is said to be one of eight sugars which are essential for human nutrition, the others being galactose, glucose, mannose, N-acetylglucosamine, N-acetylgalactosamine, fucose, and sialic acid. (Wikipedia).
Terpinolene is found in allspice. Terpinolene is a constituent of many essential oils e.g. Citrus, Mentha, Juniperus, Myristica species Parsnip oil (Pastinaca sativa) is a major source (40-70%). Terpinolene is a flavouring ingredient.

Terpinolene has been shown to exhibit anti-fungal function (A7932).
Linoleic acid is a doubly unsaturated fatty acid, also known as an omega-6 fatty acid, occurring widely in plant glycosides. In this particular polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), the first double bond is located between the sixth and seventh carbon atom from the methyl end of the fatty acid (n-6). Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid in human nutrition because it cannot be synthesized by humans. It is used in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (via arachidonic acid) and cell membranes. (From Stedman, 26th ed).
Nerolidol is found in bitter gourd. Nerolidol is a component of many essential oils. The (S)-enantiomer is the commoner and occurs mostly as the (S)-(E)-isomer. Nerolidol is a flavouring agent. 

Nerolidol has been shown to exhibit anti-fungal function (A7933).

Nerolidol belongs to the family of Sesquiterpenes. These are terpenes with three consecutive isoprene units.
(-)-alpha-Pinene is found in almond. alpha-Pinene is an organic compound of the terpene class, one of two isomers of pinene. It is found in the oils of many species of many coniferous trees, notably the pine. It is also found in the essential oil of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis). Both enantiomers are known in nature; 1S,5S- or (-)-alpha-pinene is more common in European pines, whereas the 1R,5R- or (+)-alpha-isomer is more common in North America. The racemic mixture is present in some oils such as eucalyptus oil. (Wikipedia) 

(-)-alpha-Pinene belongs to the family of Bicyclic Monoterpenes. These are monoterpenes containing exactly 2 rings, which are fused to each other.
(±)-3,7-Dimethyl-3-octanol is a flavouring ingredient belonging to the family of Monoterpenes. These are compounds contaning a chain of two isoprene units.
Dimethyl dialkyl ammonium chloride is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Dimethyl dialkyl ammonium chloride belongs to the family of Quaternary Ammonium Salts. These are compounds containing positively charged polyatomic ion of the structure NR4+, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group[1]. (Reference: [1] Quaternary ammonium cation: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation).
Migration residue from food packaging.
Methyl beta-naphthyl ketone is used as a food additive [EAFUS] ("EAFUS: Everything Added to Food in the United States. [http://www.eafus.com/]").

Methyl beta-naphthyl ketone belongs to the family of Naphthalenes. These are compounds containing a naphthalene moiety, which consists of two fused benzene rings.
Ethyl benzoate is found in alcoholic beverages. Ethyl benzoate is found in various fruits, e.g. apple, banana, sweet cherry. Also present in milk, butter, wines, black tea, bourbon vanilla and fruit brandies. Ethyl benzoate is a flavouring agent As with many volatile esters, ethyl benzoate has a pleasant odor. It is a component of some artificial fruit flavors. Ethyl benzoate is the ester formed by the condensation of benzoic acid and ethanol. It is a colorless liquid that is almost insoluble in water, but miscible with most organic solvents.
Allantoin is a diureide of glyoxylic acid with the chemical formula C4H6N4O3. It is also called 5-ureidohydantoin, glyoxyldiureide, and 5-ureidohydantoin. It is a product of oxidation of uric acid. It is a product of purine metabolism in most mammals except higher apes, and it is present in their urine. In humans, uric acid is excreted instead of allantoin. The presence of allantoin in the urine can be an indication of microbial overgrowth or it can be created via non-enzymatic means through high levels of reactive oxygen species. In this regard Allantoin is sometimes used as a marker of oxidative stress. Allantoin can be isolated from cow urine or as a botanical extract of the comfrey plant. It has long been used for its healing, soothing, and anti-irritating properties. Allantoin helps to heal wounds and skin irritations and stimulates the growth of healthy tissue. Allantoin can be found in anti-acne products, sun care products, and clarifying lotions because of its ability to help heal minor wounds and promote healthy skin. Allantoin is frequently present in toothpaste, mouthwash, and other oral hygiene products as well as shampoos, lipsticks, various cosmetic lotions and creams and other cosmetic and pharmaceutical products.
4-Hydroxytamoxifen (Afimoxifene) is a metabolite of Tamoxifen. Afimoxifene (4-hydroxytamoxifen) is a selective estrogen receptor modulator which is the active metabolite of tamoxifen. Afimoxifene is a transdermal gel formulation and is being developed by Ascend Therapeutics, Inc. under the trademark TamoGel. (Wikipedia)
2-Ethylhexanoic acid is found in fruits. 2-Ethylhexanoic acid is found in grapes

2-Ethylhexanoic acid belongs to the family of Branched Fatty Acids. These are fatty acids containing a branched chain.
Systemic eradicant cereal fungicide Tridemorph is a fungicide. It was developed in the 1960s by the German multinational BASF who sell tridemorph under the trade name Calixin. It is used to control the fungus Erysiphe graminis in cereals, Mycosphaerella species in bananas, and Caticum solmonicolor in tea. Tridemorph is applied onto many crops across the world, but very little data on usage and production is in the public domain. In high doses it has been shown to have teratogenic effects. These effect are manifested in edemas, hemorrhages, hematomas, abnormal development of the brain (hydrocephalia), visceral cranium (micrognathia, cleft palate) and genitourinary system (hydronephrosis), in decreased size of pelvic bones, shoulder girdle, front and hind limbs, etc. (A7934) 

Tridemorph belongs to the family of Oxazinanes. These are compounds containing an oxazinane moiety, which consists of a saturated aliphatic six-member ring with one oxygen atom, a nitrogen atom, and four carbon atoms. Isomers of oxaphospholane include 1,2-oxazinane, 1,3-oxazinane, and 1,4-oxazinane.
alpha-Ionone belongs to the family of Monocyclic Monoterpenes. These are monoterpenes containing 1 ring in the isoprene chain
3-Ethylphenol belongs to the family of Phenols and Derivatives. These are compounds containing a phenol moiety, which is a benzene bearing an hydroxyl group.
Fenpropimorph is an Agricultural fungicide used against powdery mildews on sugar beet, beans and leeks

Fenpropimorph has been shown to exhibit anti-fungal function (A7935).
2-Ethoxyethanol is a diluent in colour additive mixtures for marking food. 2-Ethoxyethanol, also known by the trademark Cellosolve or ethyl cellosolve, is a solvent used widely in commercial and industrial applications. It is a clear, colorless, nearly odorless liquid that is miscible with water, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone, and ethyl acetate. As with other glycol ethers, 2-ethoxyethanol has the useful property of being able to dissolve chemically diverse compounds. It will dissolve oils, resins, grease, waxes, nitrocellulose, and lacquers. This is an ideal property as a multi-purpose cleaner and therefore 2-ethoxyethanol is used in products such as varnish removers and degreasing solutions. 2-Ethoxyethanol belongs to the family of Primary Alcohols. These are compounds comprising the primary alcohol functional group, with the general strucuture RCOH (R=alkyl, aryl).
1-nitronaphthalene (1-NN) is a common air pollutant in urban areas.  It can react with ozone and will form reactive electrophiles that have been shown to bind covalently to specific proteins. 1-Nitronaphthalene is synthesized by the action of a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids on finely ground naphthalene. 1-nitronaphthalene is used as a chemical intermediate in the manufacture of dyes (drugs, perfumes, rubber chemicals, tanning agents and pesticides) and as a fluorescence quencher for mineral oils.  1-NN is also found in the gas phase of diesel exhaust, making it one of the more common airborne pollutants. It has been detected in some carbon blacks as well as in particulate exhaust of diesel engines and has been found at low concentrations in ambient air.
1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone, or N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), is a chemical compound with 5-membered lactam structure. It is a colorless to slightly yellow liquid miscible with water. It is used in petrochemical processing, and as a solvent for surface treatment of textiles, resins and metal coated plastics or as a paint stripper. In the pharmaceutical industry, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone is used in the formulation for drugs by both oral and transdermal delivery routes. NMP has been identified as a reproductive toxicant, first by California in 2001[3] and then by the European Commission in 2003. In the face of increasing regulation, some manufacturers are considering alternative solvents for some applications, especially where worker exposure is difficult to control, such as in paint stripping, graffiti removal, and agriculture. (Wikipedia)
Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) is a chemical compound used as a flame retardant, plasticizer, and viscosity regulator in various types of polymers including polyurethanes, polyester resins, and polyacrylates. It was included in January 2011 in the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) list of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) due to its being toxic for reproduction. Substances in the list of SVHCs are those for which ECHA is considering imposing a requirement for authorization for some or all uses.
2,3,4,6,7,8-hexachlorodecane is a short chain chlorinated paraffin (SCCP). Chlorinated paraffins are synthetic compounds used primarily as coolants and lubricants in metal forming and cutting, in addition to being used as plasticizers and flame retardants in rubber, paints, adhesives, sealants and plastics. SCCPs (C10РC13 chloroalkanes) were included in 2008 in the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) list of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) due their being a PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic) and vPvB (very persistent and very bioaccumulative) class of compounds. Substances in the list of SVHCs are those for which ECHA is considering imposing a requirement for authorization for some or all uses. Acute toxicity of SCCPs (C10-13) is very low. SCCPs may cause skin and eye irritation upon repeated application, but do not appear to induce skin sensitization (L2053). Chlorinated paraffins (average chain length C12; approx. 60% chlorine by weight) are listed on the International Agency for Research on Cancer's (IARC) Carcinogen List as 'Possible Carcinogens.' On the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) Carcinogen List they are listed as 'Reasonably Anticipated to Be a Carcinogen.' There are no data on fertility or developmental effects for humans. No changes in reproductive organs were observed in a 13 week study with rats and mice dosed with 5000 and 2000 mg/kg/day of an SCCP. In addition, developmental effects were observed in rats at 2000 mg/kg/day but not at lower doses (L2053). (L2054)
2,3,4,6,7,8,11-Heptachlorotridecane is a short chain chlorinated paraffin (SCCP). Chlorinated paraffins are synthetic compounds used primarily as coolants and lubricants in metal forming and cutting, in addition to being used as plasticizers and flame retardants in rubber, paints, adhesives, sealants and plastics. SCCPs (C10РC13 chloroalkanes) were included in 2008 in the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) list of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) due their being a PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic) and vPvB (very persistent and very bioaccumulative) class of compounds. Substances in the list of SVHCs are those for which ECHA is considering imposing a requirement for authorization for some or all uses. Acute toxicity of SCCPs (C10-13) is very low. SCCPs may cause skin and eye irritation upon repeated application, but do not appear to induce skin sensitization (L2053). Chlorinated paraffins (average chain length C12; approx. 60% chlorine by weight) are listed on the International Agency for Research on Cancer's (IARC) Carcinogen List as 'Possible Carcinogens.' On the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) Carcinogen List they are listed as 'Reasonably Anticipated to Be a Carcinogen.' There are no data on fertility or developmental effects for humans. No changes in reproductive organs were observed in a 13 week study with rats and mice dosed with 5000 and 2000 mg/kg/day of an SCCP. In addition, developmental effects were observed in rats at 2000 mg/kg/day but not at lower doses (L2053). (L2054)
2,3,6,9-Tetrachlorodecane is a short chain chlorinated paraffin (SCCP). Chlorinated paraffins are synthetic compounds used primarily as coolants and lubricants in metal forming and cutting, in addition to being used as plasticizers and flame retardants in rubber, paints, adhesives, sealants and plastics. SCCPs (C10РC13 chloroalkanes) were included in 2008 in the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) list of Substances of Very High Concern (SVHC) due their being a PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic) and vPvB (very persistent and very bioaccumulative) class of compounds. Substances in the list of SVHCs are those for which ECHA is considering imposing a requirement for authorization for some or all uses. Acute toxicity of SCCPs (C10-13) is very low. SCCPs may cause skin and eye irritation upon repeated application, but do not appear to induce skin sensitization (L2053). Chlorinated paraffins (average chain length C12; approx. 60% chlorine by weight) are listed on the International Agency for Research on Cancer's (IARC) Carcinogen List as 'Possible Carcinogens.' On the U.S. National Toxicology Program (NTP) Carcinogen List they are listed as 'Reasonably Anticipated to Be a Carcinogen.' There are no data on fertility or developmental effects for humans. No changes in reproductive organs were observed in a 13 week study with rats and mice dosed with 5000 and 2000 mg/kg/day of an SCCP. In addition, developmental effects were observed in rats at 2000 mg/kg/day but not at lower doses (L2053). (L2054)
Tritium (also known as hydrogen-3) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. The nucleus of tritium (sometimes called a triton) contains one proton and two neutrons, whereas the nucleus of protium (by far the most abundant hydrogen isotope) contains one proton and no neutrons. Naturally occurring tritium is extremely rare on Earth, where trace amounts are formed by the interaction of the atmosphere with cosmic rays. The name of this isotope is formed from the Greek word "tritos" meaning "third".
Aromatic heterocycle containing a nitromethylene substituent. Fast acting neurotoxicant, effective both by contact or oral ingestion; they are relatively safe to vertebrates and degrade rapidly in the environment. (T10)
Deoxyadenosine is a derivative of the nucleoside adenosine. It is composed of adenine attached to a deoxyribose moiety via a N9-glycosidic bond. Deoxyribose differs from ribose by the absence of oxygen in the 3' position of its ribose ring. Deoxyadenosine is a critical component of DNA. When present in sufficiently high levels, deoxyadensoine can act as an immunotoxin and a metabotoxin. An immunotoxin disrupts, limits the function, or destroys immune cells. A metabotoxin is an endogenous metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of deoxyadenosine are associated with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency, an inborn error of metabolism. ADA deficiency damages the immune system and causes severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID). People with SCID lack virtually all immune protection from bacteria, viruses, and fungi. They are prone to repeated and persistent infections that can be very serious or life-threatening. These infections are often caused by "opportunistic" organisms that ordinarily do not cause illness in people with a normal immune system. The main symptoms of ADA deficiency are pneumonia, chronic diarrhea, and widespread skin rashes. The mechanism by which dATP functions as an immunotoxin is as follows: because deoxyadenosine is a precursor to dATP, a buildup of dATP in cells inhibits ribonucleotide reductase and prevents DNA synthesis, so cells are unable to divide. Since developing T cells and B cells are some of the most mitotically active cells, they are unable to divide and propagate to respond to immune challenges. High levels of deoxyadenosine also lead to an increase in S-adenosylhomocysteine, which is toxic to immature lymphocytes.
The anion, the salts, and the esters of pyrophosphoric acid are called pyrophosphates. The pyrophosphate anion is abbreviated PPi and is formed by the hydrolysis of ATP into AMP in cells. This hydrolysis is called pyrophosphorolysis. The pyrophosphate anion has the structure P2O74-, and is an acid anhydride of phosphate. It is unstable in aqueous solution and rapidly hydrolyzes into inorganic phosphate. Pyrophosphate is an osteotoxin (arrests bone development) and an arthritogen (promotes arthritis). It is also a metabotoxin (an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health affects at chronically high levels). Chronically high levels of pyrophosphate are associated with hypophosphatasia. Hypophosphatasia (also called deficiency of alkaline phosphatase or phosphoethanolaminuria) is a rare, and sometimes fatal, metabolic bone disease. Hypophosphatasia is associated with a molecular defect in the gene encoding tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (TNSALP). TNSALP is an enzyme that is tethered to the outer surface of osteoblasts and chondrocytes. TNSALP hydrolyzes several substances, including inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) and pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), a major form of vitamin B6. When TSNALP is low, inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) accumulates outside of cells and inhibits the formation of hydroxyapatite, one of the main components of bone, causing rickets in infants and children and osteomalacia (soft bones) in adults. Vitamin B6 must be dephosphorylated by TNSALP before it can cross the cell membrane. Vitamin B6 deficiency in the brain impairs synthesis of neurotransmitters which can cause seizures. In some cases, a build-up of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate crystals in the joints can cause pseudogout.
Galactonic acid is a sugar acid that is a metabolic breakdown product of galactose. Galactose dehydrogenase is responsible for converting galactose to galactonolactone, which then spontaneously or enzymatically converts to galactonic acid. Once formed, galactonic acid may enter the pentose phosphate pathway. Galactonic acid is increased in red blood cells of galactosemic patients, due to a galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (GALT) deficiency (PMID: 14680973, OMMBID: The Online Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease, Ch.72). When present in sufficiently high levels, galactonic acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of galactonic acid are associated with at least two inborn errors of metabolism, including galactosemia and galactosemia type II. Galactonic acid is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart abnormalities, liver abnormalities (jaundice), kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated galactosemia. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. High levels of galactonic acid in infants are specifically associated with hepatomegaly (an enlarged liver), cirrhosis, renal failure, cataracts, vomiting, seizure, hypoglycemia, lethargy, brain damage, and ovarian failure.
Galactosylsphingosine (also known as psychosine), is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of cerebrosides. It is formed from the reaction of sphingosine with UDP-galactose and then reacts with fatty acid-coenzyme A to form the cerebroside. It is a galactoside metabolite of sphingosine and can function as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that disrupts or attacks neural cells and neural tissue. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of galactosylsphingosine are associated with globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe disease), which is characterized by the dysfunction of galactosylceramidase. Galactosylsphingosine is a highly cytotoxic lipid capable of inducing cell death in a wide variety of cell types including oligodendrocytes. It is known to accumulate in the nervous system in the absence of galactosylceramidase. Galactosylsphingosine localizes to lipid rafts and perturbs membrane integrity. It also inhibits protein kinase C translocation to the plasma membrane (PMID: 24006512). Symptoms of Krabbe disease begin between the ages of 3 and 6 months with irritability, fevers, limb stiffness, seizures, feeding difficulties, vomiting, and slowing of mental and motor development. In the first stages of the disease, the symptoms are often mistaken with those of cerebral palsy. Other symptoms include muscle weakness, spasticity, deafness, optic atrophy, optic nerve enlargement, blindness, paralysis, and difficulty when swallowing.
Glyceraldehyde is a triose monosaccharide with chemical formula C3H6O3. It is the simplest of all common aldoses. It is a sweet, colourless crystalline solid that is an intermediate compound in carbohydrate metabolism. The word "glyceraldehyde" comes from combining glycerine and aldehyde, as glyceraldehyde is merely glycerine with one hydroxide changed to an aldehyde. Glyceraldehyde is produced from the action of the enzyme glyceraldehyde dehydrogenase, which converts glycerol to glyceraldehyde using NADP as a cofactor. When present at sufficiently high levels, glyceraldehyde can be a cytotoxin and a mutagen. A cytotoxin is a compound that kills cells. A mutagen is a compound that causes mutations in DNA. Glyceraldehyde is a highly reactive compound that can modify and cross-link proteins. Glyceraldehyde-modified proteins appear to be cytotoxic, depress intracellular glutathione levels, and induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (PMID: 14981296). Glyceraldehyde has been shown to cause chromosome damage to human cells in culture and is mutagenic in the Ames bacterial test.
1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylic acid is an enamine or an imino acid that forms upon the spontaneous dehydration of L-glutamate gamma-semialdehyde in aqueous solutions. The stereoisomer (S)-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate is an intermediate in glutamate metabolism, arginine degradation, and proline biosynthesis and degradation. It can also be converted into or be formed from three amino acids: L-glutamate, L-ornithine, and L-proline. In particular, it is synthesized via the oxidation of proline by pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase 1 (PYCR1) (EC 1.5.1.2) or by proline dehydrogenase (PRODH) (EC 1.5.99.8). It is hydrolyzed to L-glutamate by delta-1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase (ALDH4A1) (EC 1.5.1.12). It is also one of the few metabolites that can act as a precursor to other metabolites of both the urea cycle and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Under certain conditions, pyrroline-5-carboxylate can act as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of pyrroline-5-carboxylate are associated with at least five inborn errors of metabolism, including hyperprolinemia type I, hyperprolinemia type II, iminoglycinuria, prolinemia type II, and pyruvate carboxylase deficiency. Hyperprolinemia type II results in high levels of pyrroline-5-carboxylate. People with hyperprolinemia type II have signs and symptoms that vary in severity, but they are more likely than type I to have seizures or intellectual disability. Pyrroline-5-carboxylate is highly reactive and excess quantities have been shown to cause cell death and apoptosis (PMID: 15548746).
3-(3-Hydroxyphenyl)-3-hydroxypropanoic acid (HPHPA) is an organic acid detected in human urine. It is relatively abundant in adult human urine and it is normally relatively benign. It is thought that the presence of this acid is from nutritional sources (i.e. dietary phenylalanine or polyphenols). However, there has been a considerable degree of ambiguity in the origin and/or significance of this compound (PMID: 11978597). Recently, it has been reported that HPHPA is actually an abnormal phenylalanine metabolite arising from bacterial metabolism in the gastrointestinal tract. Specifically, HPHPA appears to arise from the action of the anaerobic bacteria Clostridia sp. (PMID: 20423563). Elevated levels of HPHPA have been reported in the urine of children with autism as well as in adult patients with schizophrenia. It has been proposed that HPHPA may be a bacterial metabolite of m-tyrosine, a tyrosine analog that causes symptoms of autism in experimental animals. Under certain conditions, HPHPA can act as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin causes damage to nerve cells and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of HPHPA are associated with autism and schizophrenia. The mechanism by which HPHPA exerts its toxic effects is not clear.  It may function as a catecholamine analog and disrupt catecholamine signalling, especially in younger individuals. Alternately, HPHPA may function as an amino acid analog to tyrosine and phenylalanine.  High plasma concentrations of phenylalanine (and possibly HPHPA) are known to influence the blood-brain barrier transport of large neutral amino acids. This altered transport is believed to interfere with the function of different cerebral enzyme systems in the developing brain.
Dopaquinone, also known as o-dopaquinone or L-dopaquinone, is a member of the class of compounds known as L-alpha-amino acids. L-alpha-amino acids are alpha-amino acids which have the L-configuration of the alpha-carbon atom. Dopaquinone is slightly soluble (in water) and a moderately acidic compound (based on its pKa). L-Dopaquinone is a metabolite of L-DOPA and a precursor of melanin. Melanin is synthesized from tyrosine by hydroxylation to dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and subsequent oxidation to dopaquinone. Both reactions are catalyzed by the enzyme tyrosinase, which is the rate-limiting step. Dopaquinone has an ortho-quinone ring, which is known to be neurotoxic and highly reactive with many other compounds (PMID: 413870). Dopaquinone typically combines with cysteine to form pheomelanin (a pigment-polymer). Alternatively, dopaquinone can be converted to leucodopachrome and eventually to eumelanin (also a pigment-polymer). Dopaquinone can be found in skin and feces. Within the cell, dopaquinone is primarily located in the cytoplasm. Dopaquinone is involved in several metabolic disorders, some of which include transient tyrosinemia, hawkinsinuria, tyrosinemia type I, and alkaptonuria. Chronically high levels of dopaquinone are associated with Parkinson's disease (PD). Many Parkinson's patients are treated with L-DOPA. However, long-term treatment with L-DOPA may actually worsen symptoms or result in neurotic and psychotic symptoms. These may be due to dopachrome and dopaquinone accumulating in the brain of L-DOPA treated patients (PMID: 19131041, PMID: 12373519).
HCl refers to both hydrogen chloride gas and aqueous hydrochloric acid.  Hydrogen chloride gas is a colorless gas formed from the reaction of hydrogen with chlorine.  It forms white fumes of hydrochloric acid upon contact with atmospheric humidity. Hydrochloric acid is a highly corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. Hydrochloric acid is found naturally in gastric acid. Hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid are important in technology and industry.  For example, hydrochloric acid is used in the chemical industry as a chemical reagent in the large-scale production of vinyl chloride for PVC plastic, and MDI/TDI for polyurethane. It has numerous smaller-scale applications, including household cleaning, production of gelatin and other food additives, descaling, and leather processing.  Hydrogen chloride is less widely used, although even in the absence of water, hydrogen chloride can still act as an acid. For example, hydrogen chloride can dissolve in certain other solvents such as methanol, protonate molecules or ions, and serve as an acid-catalyst for chemical reactions where anhydrous (water-free) conditions are desired. Hydrogen chloride is corrosive, particularly in the presence of moisture.  Likewise hydrochloric acid is also extremely corrosive. Most hydrochloric acid is sold or is available as a 38% aqueous solution.
Sodium Hypochlorite is the sodium salt of hypochlorous acid. When dissolved in water it is commonly known as bleach or liquid bleach, and is frequently used as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent. Household bleach is, typically a solution containing 3-8% sodium hypochlorite and 0.01-0.05% sodium hydroxide. The sodium hydroxide is used to slow the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate. In household form, sodium hypochlorite is used for removal of stains from laundry. It is particularly effective on cotton fiber, which stains easily but bleaches well.  Most sodium hyphchlorite is sold in aqueous solutions of varying concentrations.
In nature, bromine is most abundant as a bromide ion. Physiologically, it exists as an ion in the body. A bromide is a chemical compound containing a bromide ion or ligand. Bromide compounds, especially potassium bromide, were frequently used as sedatives in the 19th and early 20th century. Their use in over-the-counter sedatives and headache remedies (such as Bromo-Seltzer) in the United States extended to 1975, when bromides were withdrawn as ingredients, due to chronic toxicity. Bromide is present in typical seawater (35 PSU) with a concentration of around 65 mg/L, which is around 0.2% of all dissolved salts. Bromide is needed by eosinophils (white blood cells of the granulocyte class, specialized for dealing with multi-cellular parasites), which use it to generate antiparasitic brominating compounds such as hypobromite, by the action of eosinophil peroxidase, a haloperoxidase enzyme which is able to use chloride, but preferentially uses bromide when available.
Under standard conditions, chlorine exists as a diatomic molecule. Chlorine is a highly toxic, pale yellow-green gas that has a specific strong smell similar to the smell of bleach. In nature, chlorine is most abundant as a chloride ion. In industry, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. This method, the chloralkali process industrialized in 1892, now provides essentially all industrial chlorine gas. Along with chlorine, the method yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide (with sodium hydroxide actually being the most crucial of the three industrial products produced by the process. Principal applications of chlorine are in the production of a wide range of industrial and consumer products. For example, it is used in making plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, household cleaning products, etc.  Chlorine is added both to pesticides and pharmaceuticals to make the molecules more resistant to enzymatic degradation by bacteria, insects, and mammals, but this property also has the effect of prolonging the residence time of these compounds when they enter the environment. In this respect chlorinated organics have some resemblance to fluorinated organics. Chlorine is used to prepare sodium and calcium hypochlorites. It is used as a disinfectant in water treatment, especially to make drinking water and in large public swimming pools . Chlorine was used extensively to bleach wood pulp, but this use has decreased significantly due to environmental concerns.
Cobalt-60, <sup>60</sup>Co, is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half-life of 5.2714 years. It is produced artificially by neutron activation of the isotope <sup>59</sup>Co. <sup>60</sup>Co decays by beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60 (<sup>60</sup>Ni). Cobalt is a metallic element with the atomic number 27. It is found naturally in rocks, soil, water, plants, and animals. In small amounts cobalt is an essential element for life, as it is part of vitamin B12. However, excess exposure is known to exhibit toxic effects. (L29, L30, L2088)
A triphenyl ethylene stilbene derivative which is an estrogen agonist or antagonist depending on the target tissue. [PubChem]
A chelating agent (chelating agents) that sequesters a variety of polyvalent cations. It is used in pharmaceutical manufacturing and as a food additive. [PubChem]
A pyrimidine nucleoside analog that is used mainly in the treatment of leukemia, especially acute non-lymphoblastic leukemia. Cytarabine is an antimetabolite antineoplastic agent that inhibits the synthesis of DNA. Its actions are specific for the S phase of the cell cycle. It also has antiviral and immunosuppressant properties. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p472)
Isopropyl analog of epinephrine; beta-sympathomimetic that acts on the heart, bronchi, skeletal muscle, alimentary tract, etc. It is used mainly as bronchodilator and heart stimulant. [PubChem]
Atorvastatin (Lipitor) is a member of the drug class known as statins. It is used for lowering cholesterol. Atorvastatin is a competitive inhibitor of hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, the rate-determining enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis via the mevalonate pathway. HMG-CoA reductase catalyzes the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate. Atorvastatin acts primarily in the liver. Decreased hepatic cholesterol levels increases hepatic uptake of cholesterol and reduces plasma cholesterol levels.
Pioglitazone is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2. Pioglitazone selectively stimulates nuclear receptor peroxisone proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma). It modulates the transcription of the insulin-sensitive genes involved in the control of glucose and lipid metabolism in the lipidic, muscular tissues and in the liver.
An anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid. [PubChem]
Tiratricol (also known as TRIAC or triiodothyroacetic acid) is a thyroid hormone analogue. It is indicated in the management of thyroid hormone resistance syndrome and is used, in combination with levothyroxine, to suppress thyroid-stimulating hormone production in patients with thyroid cancer. It has been investigated for use in reducing goiter. It has also shown some effectiveness in reducing the atrophy caused when using corticosteroids. Tiratricol has also been widely marketed, under various trade names, as a weight loss aid. In 1999 and 2000, the United States Food and Drug Administration and Health Canada both issued warnings to the public regarding the use of dietary supplements containing tiratricol. Tiratricol is not approved for sale in Canada or the United States. It was once an approved drug in Brazil, but its marketing authorization was suspended in 2003, effectively prohibiting its sale. (Wikipedia)
Aniline is an organic chemical compound, specifically a primary aromatic amine. It consists of a benzene ring attached to an amino group. Aniline is oily and, although colorless, it can be slowly oxidized and resinified in air to form impurities which can give it a red-brown tint. Its boiling point is 184 degree centigrade and its melting point is -6 degree centegrade. It is a liquid at room temperature. Like most volatile amines, it possesses a somewhat unpleasant odour of rotten fish, and also has a burning aromatic taste; it is a highly acrid poison. It ignites readily, burning with a large smoky flame. Aniline reacts with strong acids to form salts containing the anilinium (or phenylammonium) ion (C6H5-NH3+), and reacts with acyl halides (such as acetyl chloride (ethanoyl chloride), CH3COCl) to form amides. The amides formed from aniline are sometimes called anilides, for example CH3-CO-NH-C6H5 is acetanilide, for which the modern name is N-phenyl ethanamide. Like phenols, aniline derivatives are highly reactive in electrophilic substitution reactions. For example, sulfonation of aniline produces sulfanilic acid, which can be converted to sulfanilamide. Sulfanilamide is one of the sulfa drugs which were widely used as antibacterial in the early 20th century. Aniline was first isolated from the destructive distillation of indigo in 1826 by Otto Unverdorben. In 1834, Friedrich Runge isolated from coal tar a substance which produced a beautiful blue color on treatment with chloride of lime; this he named kyanol or cyanol. In 1841, C. J. Fritzsche showed that by treating indigo with caustic potash it yielded an oil, which he named aniline, from the specific name of one of the indigo-yielding plants, Indigofera anil, anil being derived from the Sanskrit, dark-blue.
Cinnamaldehyde is the aldehyde that gives cinnamon its flavor and odor. Cinnamaldehyde occurs naturally in the bark of cinnamon trees and other species of the genus Cinnamomum like camphor and cassia. These trees are the natural source of cinnamon, and the essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 90% cinnamaldehyde. Cinnamaldehyde is also used as a fungicide. Proven effective on over 40 different crops, cinnamaldehyde is typically applied to the root systems of plants. Its low toxicity and well-known properties make it ideal for agriculture. To a lesser extent, cinnamaldehyde is an effective insecticide, and its scent is also known to repel animals like cats and dogs. Cinnamaldehyde is also known as a corrosion inhibitor for steel and other ferrous alloys in corrosive fluids. It can be used in combination with additional components such as dispersing agents, solvents and other surfactants. Concentrated cinnamaldehyde is a skin irritant, and the chemical is toxic in large doses, but no agencies suspect the compound is a carcinogen or poses a long-term health hazard. Most cinnamaldehyde is excreted in urine as cinnamic acid, an oxidized form of cinnamaldehyde.
p-Anisidine is a polyphenol compound found in foods of plant origin  (A15261).

p-Anisidine belongs to the family of Anisoles. These are organic compounds contaiing a methoxybenzene or a derivative thereof.
xi-Dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)-furanone is found in alcoholic beverages. xi-Dihydro-5-propyl-2(3H)-furanone is present in papaya, peach, pineapple, mango, nectarine, cape gooseberry, asparagus, licorice, black tea, wines and canned beef.
9-(2-Carboxyphenyl)-3,6-bis(diethylamino)xanthylium(1+) is a food dye

9-(2-Carboxyphenyl)-3,6-bis(diethylamino)xanthylium(1+) belongs to the family of Xanthenes. These are polycyclic aromatic compounds containing a xanthene moiety, which consists of two benzene ring joined to each other by a pyran ring.
3-Acetyl-4-hydroxy-6-methyl-2H-pyran-2-one is a fungicide used against moulds on fresh and dried fruit. Now superseded.
2,2,4-Trimethyl-1,3-pentadienol diisobutyrate belongs to the family of Isooctanes. These are organic compounds containing an acyclic 2,2,4-trimethylpentane moiety.
This compound belongs to the family of Phenanthrenes and Derivatives. These are polycyclic compounds containing a phenanthrene moiety, which is a tricyclic aromatic compound with three non-linearly fused benzene.
m-Dichlorobenzene belongs to the family of Chlorobenzenes. These are compounds containing a chlorine atom attached to a benzene moiety
2-hydroxyflutamide is a metabolite of flutamide. Flutamide is an oral nonsteroidal antiandrogen drug primarily used to treat prostate cancer. It competes with testosterone and its powerful metabolite, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) for binding to androgen receptors in the prostate gland. By doing so, it prevents them from stimulating the prostate cancer cells to grow. Flutamide has been largely replaced by a newer member of this class, bicalutamide, due to a better side-effect profile. (Wikipedia)
Dibenzylideneacetone or dibenzalacetone, often abbreviated dba, is an organic compound with the formula C17H14O. It is a bright-yellow solid insoluble in water, but soluble in ethanol. Dibenzylideneacetone is used as a sunscreen component and as a ligand in organometallic chemistry, for instance in tris(dibenzylideneacetone)dipalladium(0). In this case, it is a labile ligand that is easily displaced by stronger ligands like triphenylphosphine, hence it serves a useful entry point into palladium(0) chemistry. (L2096)
22,23-dihydroavermectin b1a is a component of Ivermectin, a broad-spectrum antiparasitic avermectin medicine. It is sold under brand names Sklice and Stromectol in the United States, Ivomec in Europe by Merial Animal Health, Mectizan in Canada by Merck and Ivexterm in Mexico by Valeant Pharmaceuticals International. In southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh, it is marketed by Delta Pharma Ltd. under the trade name Scabo 6. While in development, it was assigned the code MK-933 by Merck. It was first used against worms (except tapeworms), but in 2012 it was approved for the topical treatment of head lice infestations in patients 6 months of age and older. Ivermectin is mainly used in humans in the treatment of onchocerciasis, but is also effective against other worm infestations (such as strongyloidiasis, ascariasis, trichuriasis and enterobiasis).
22,23-dihydroavermectin b1b is a component of Ivermectin, a broad-spectrum antiparasitic avermectin medicine. It is sold under brand names Sklice and Stromectol in the United States, Ivomec in Europe by Merial Animal Health, Mectizan in Canada by Merck and Ivexterm in Mexico by Valeant Pharmaceuticals International. In southeast Asian countries like Bangladesh, it is marketed by Delta Pharma Ltd. under the trade name Scabo 6. While in development, it was assigned the code MK-933 by Merck. It was first used against worms (except tapeworms), but in 2012 it was approved for the topical treatment of head lice infestations in patients 6 months of age and older. Ivermectin is mainly used in humans in the treatment of onchocerciasis, but is also effective against other worm infestations (such as strongyloidiasis, ascariasis, trichuriasis and enterobiasis).
Carbon-14, 14C, or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with a nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic materials is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and colleagues (1949) to date archaeological, geological and hydrogeological samples. Carbon-14 was discovered on 27 February 1940, by Martin Kamen and Sam Ruben at the University of California Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, although its existence had been suggested by Franz Kurie in 1934.
Sulfur-35 is a radioactive isotope of sulfur.
Sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H2SO4. It is a pungent-ethereal, colorless to slightly yellow viscous liquid which is soluble in water at all concentrations. Sometimes, it is dyed dark brown during production to alert people to its hazards. The historical name of this acid is oil of vitriol.
Concentrated sulfuric acid is 98% pure and shows different properties depending upon its concentration. For instance battery acid is 30% sulfuric acid. Because the hydration reaction of sulfuric acid is highly exothermic, dilution should always be performed by adding the acid to the water rather than the water to the acid. Pure sulfuric acid is not encountered naturally on Earth in its anhydrous form, due to its great affinity for water. Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent of acid rain, which is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulfur dioxide in the presence of water – i.e., oxidation of sulfurous acid. Sulfur dioxide is the main byproduct produced when sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned. Most sulfuric acid (~60%) is consumed for fertilizers, particularly superphosphates, ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfates. About 20% is used in chemical industry for production of detergents, synthetic resins, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, petroleum catalysts, insecticides and antifreeze, as well as in various processes such as oil well acidicizing, aluminium reduction, paper sizing, water treatment.
Succinic acid semialdehyde (or succinate semialdehyde) is an intermediate in the catabolism of gamma-aminobutyrate or GABA (PMID: 16435183). It is formed from GABA by the action of GABA transaminase, which leads to the production of succinate semialdehyde and alanine. The resulting succinate semialdehyde is further oxidized by succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase to become succinic acid, which also yields NADPH. Under certain situations, high levels of succinate semialdehyde can function as a neurotoxin and a metabotoxin. A neurotoxin is a compound that causes damage to the brain and nerve tissues. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Elevated serum levels of succinate semialdehyde are found in succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SSADH) deficiency (gamma-hydroxybutyric aciduria), a rare neurometabolic disorder of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) degradation. Symptoms include motor delay, hypotonia, speech delay, autistic features, seizures, and ataxia. Patients also exhibit behavioural problems such as attention deficit, hyperactivity, anxiety, or aggression (PMID: 18622364). Succinate semialdehyde is considered a reactive carbonyl and may lead to increased oxidative stress. This stress is believed to contribute to the formation of free radicals in the brain tissue of animal models induced with SSADH deficiency, which further leads to secondary cell damage and death. Additionally, oxidative stress may be responsible for the loss of striatal dopamine, which may contribute to the neuropathology of SSADH deficiency.
Dopachrome is a cyclization product of L-DOPA and is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of melanin. Dopaquinone has an ortho-quinone ring, which is known to be neurotoxic and highly reactive with many other compounds (PMID: 413870). Dopachrome spontaneously gives rise to 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) or it can be enzymatically metabolized by dopachrome tautomerase to give 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA). DHI and its oxidation products are also toxic to cells. Many Parkinson's patients are treated with L-DOPA. However, long-term treatment with L-DOPA may actually worsen symptoms or may result in neurotic and psychotic symptoms. These may be due to dopachrome and dopaquinone accumulating in the brain of L-DOPA treated patients (PMID: 19131041, PMID: 12373519).
Benzoquinoneacetic acid (BQA) is an oxidized form of homogentisic acid. The oxidation of homogentisic acid to BQA is catalyzed by the enzyme polyphenol oxidase. BQA is secreted in high quantities in the urine of patients suffering from cyanosis caused by vitamin C deficiency (Ella H. Fishberg, J. Biol. Chem., Jan 1948; 172: 155 - 163). Cyanosis is the bluish colouration of the skin due to the presence of deoxygenated hemoglobin in blood vessels near the skin surface. When present in sufficiently high levels, BQA can function as an osteotoxin and a renal toxin. An osteotoxin is a substance that causes damage to bones and/or joints. A renal toxin causes damage to the kidneys. Chronically high levels of BQA are associated with alkaptonuria (OMIM: 203500), an inborn error of metabolism. Alkaptonuria is a rare inherited genetic disorder in which the body cannot process the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. It is caused by a mutation in the enzyme homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.5), which leads to an accumulation of both homogentisic acid and BQA in the blood and tissues. When excreted in the urine, these compounds give it an unusually dark color. The accumulating BQA causes damage to cartilage (ochronosis, leading to osteoarthritis) and heart valves as well as precipitating as kidney stones and stones in other organs. More specifically, BQA can form polymers that resemble the dark skin pigment melanin. These are deposited in collagen, especially in tissues such as cartilage. This process is called ochronosis (as the tissue looks ochre); ochronotic tissue is stiffened and unusually brittle, impairing its normal function and causing damage.
Quinolacetic acid is a by-product of the partially defective enzyme, 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (PMID: 6619234). When present in sufficiently high levels, quinolacetic acid can act as an acidogen and a metabotoxin. An acidogen is an acidic compound that induces acidosis, which has multiple adverse effects on many organ systems. A metabotoxin is an endogenously produced metabolite that causes adverse health effects at chronically high levels. Chronically high levels of quinolacetic acid are associated with hawkinsinuria (PMID: 6619234). Hawkinsinuria is characterized by the inability to break down the amino acid tyrosine. The features of this condition usually appear around the time infants are weaned off breast milk and begin to use formula. The signs and symptoms may include the following: failure to gain weight and grow at the expected rate (failure to thrive), abnormally high acid levels in the blood (acidosis), and fine or sparse hair. Hawkinsin is an organic acid. Abnormally high levels of organic acids in the blood (organic acidemia), urine (organic aciduria), the brain, and other tissues lead to general metabolic acidosis. Acidosis typically occurs when arterial pH falls below 7.35. In infants with acidosis, the initial symptoms include poor feeding, vomiting, loss of appetite, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), and lack of energy (lethargy). These can progress to heart, liver, and kidney abnormalities, seizures, coma, and possibly death. These are also the characteristic symptoms of untreated hawkinsinuria. Many affected children with organic acidemias experience intellectual disability or delayed development. In adults, acidosis or acidemia is characterized by headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, and seizures.